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No description available.

Observation of the presence and absence of Roman-style goods and structures has guided much of the analysis of imperialism in Roman Britain and other parts of the Empire. Wealth and power have been assumed to correlate with the extent to which a group's material culture and lifestyle appeared `Romanized'. The concept of `Romanization' has become the primary measurement of change in the lives of the people who were conquered: and where there was only slight evidence of Romanization, there is an assumption that the lives of people were little changed and continued much as they did before the conquest. Many of the signifiers used to describe `Romanization' are tied to the consumption of food and drink. Eating and drinking, however, is much more than the observance of particular ingredients and containers - it is also the consideration of how and where one eats and drinks, and with whom and why. Rarely is the totality of food and drink consumption in Roman Britain considered. This study challenges the inventories of `Roman' and `native' material culture, so as to incorporate different types of settlements and the experiences of people of different socio- economic backgrounds into discussions of Roman Britain. This thesis develops a methodological approach to the analysis of the social contexts of the consumption of food and drink at `native type' settlements during the post-conquest period in an attempt to access the localized effects of imperialism. This approach was realized through an in- depth analysis of four sites in the Upper Thames Valley. The four sites selected for analysis are: Barton Court Farm, Roughground Farm, Old Shifford Farm, and Claydon Pike.

This scientific analysis of evidence excavated from glass-making sites, Blunden's Wood (c. 1330 AD), Knightons (c. 1550 AD) and Sidney Wood (1600 - 1620 AD), has provided further understanding of the technology used to produce `forest' glass in England between the fourteenth and seventeenth centuries. The influx of immigrant glass-makers into England during this time, especially during the sixteenth century, had a large impact on the English glass industry. The production of `forest' glass used ash and sand as the raw ingredients in the glass batch. This work demonstrated that it was possible to determine the correlation between certain components in the glass, and therefore, determine which components entered the batch from the sand, and those that entered from the ash. This work hinted that oak ash was used in preference to beech. In addition to this, it appeared that fritting did take place, from the evidence from Blunden's Wood, at a temperature in the region of 900 °C. This frit was then melted at a temperature that may have been as high as 1300 °C. The changes in glass technology began to take place during the middle of the sixteenth century, and in the first quarter of the seventeenth century the `forest' glass industry ceased. The move to coal-fired furnaces, the higher demand for glass and the improvement in quality of glass all contributed to the expansion and migration of the industry that was seen at the start of the seventeenth century.

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This study of anthropomorphic figures in Anatolia, variously described in the older literature as figurines, idols or statuettes, is mainly concerned with their stylistic development from the period in which they first appear, the Neolithic, to the end of the Early Bronze Age. Two main periods of development may be distinguished: the Early Neolithic, Late Neolithic and Early Chalcolithic periods which form. the first and the Late Chalcolithic and the Early Bronze Age (I-III) which is the second period. In the first period anthropomorphic figures are mainly sculptured in the round, but in two stylistically different groups. At the beginning of this period, during the Early Neolithic, they occur not only in aniconic and semi-anthropomorphic forms, but they are also found in a variety of styles that range from realistic to stylized and schematized forms. In time realistically executed anthropomorphic figures increase during the Late Neolithic, although the earlier forms are still found. Whereas conventionalized anthropomorphic figures in a realistic style dominate in this period, a decline sets in during the Early Chalcolithic, when uniformity disappears and tendencies towards stylization become apparent. This decline, it should be pointed out, does not follow a gradual development from realistic representations deteriorating into stylized and highly stylized forms. Naturalistic representations show less naturalism and tend to show exaggerated proportions. Examples of the schematic group occur earlier than those of the naturalistic group, and when the naturalistic figures appear schematic representations are not ousted or replaced. On the contrary, they occur and continue to occur side by side, but differ from the naturalistic group. both in the crudeness of their manufacture and size. Although the Late Chalcolithic marks the beginning of the second main period, it may be regarded as a transitional period when fully modelled figures give way to flattened forms and anthropomorphic figures begin to deteriorate through loss of arms, legs and other anatomical details. This trend continues throughout the following Early Bronze Age. However, from Early Bronze Age II onwards, anthropomorphic figures carved in the round reappear -side by side with the flat ones though they never attain the same amount of realism found in the first period, and in particular the Late Neolithic. It should be pointed out that this new development is not general but shows geographical differences.

It has long been known that Anatolia (approximately present day Turkey) participated actively in diverse aspects of metallurgy from as early as the Neolithic period. This thesis treats various facets of the metallurgical industry from its outset in the 7th millennium B.C.to the end of the Early Bronze Age (ca. 2000 B.C.) It collects together much of the geological data pertaining to the metalliferous ores of gold, silver, arsenic, and copper. Subjects also discussed are the methods of mining and smelting. Concomitant with these is a report on surveys made by the author (under the auspices of the Turkish Mineral Exploration and Research institute) on the location of early mining and smelting sites in Turkey. Analyses of slag and ore are included in the Appendices and Catalogues. The metalwork itself is presented in Catalogue form, and full reference is made to all the prehistoric Anatolian metalwork which has been analyzed. Based on the above data, the development of the metallurgical industry as a whole is viewed over the course of 5 millennia. Many more copper deposits, unknown to archaeologists and historians, are brought to light i n this study. The presence of these deposits allows us now to widen our scope of the development of the metallurgical industry, Instead of seeing it as dependent on a few major deposits such as Ergani, Murgul and Kastamonu, we can now reserve the option of offshoots and separate development in different areas of Anatolia. The metalwork, in fact, suggest this, though it does not become apparent until EB 11, from when the bulk of our documents dates. Earlier material is not lacking and does suggest an even more dispersed series of local metallurgies. Chalcolithic metallurgies were probably loosely associated, perhaps by sharing common sources, but they still appear to have remained culturally distinct. It was the coming together of the Chalcolithic cultures that provided the prolific metallurgical development witnessed in EB 11 and EB 111.

The excavations and regional survey conducted by the Kent State University Cyprus Archaeological Expedition at Episkopi Phaneromeni have contributed much to the understanding of the little known social and cultural history of southern Cyprus in the Early and Middle Bronze Age. Chapter I. In order to use the material from Phaneromeni as a criterion for the analysis of the local culture, an initial requirement was the detailed study of the architectural features and their contents at the Middle and Late Cypriot IA settlements (Areas G and A). Having determined the degree of urbanisation at she site, and what artifacts, fauna, and flora were employed or exploited by its inhabitants, viable typologies are established for the lithic, metal, terracotta and pottery finds. Chapter II presents the lithic typology and chronology (excluding chipped stone) that covers 33 categories. It concludes with a detailed discussion of Mehen and Zenet, the so-called 'gaming stones'. Chapter III presents a reassessment of pre-Late Cypriot II copper smelting technology. All well documented metal objects of this period from the Curium, Limassol and Paphos Museums are classified and dated. The discussion includes the data provided by 54 new analyses, and emphasises the dangers of comparing results from different laboratories. Chapter IV presents the terracotta typology and chronology covering 5 categories. Chapter V presents the new ceramic typology and terminology, e. g. Red Polished I South Coast, Red Polished III Mottled, Red Polished IV, Drab Polished Blue Core and Red Polished Punctured ware. Emphasis is on the relative percentages of each ware rather than a detailed evolution of shapes and decoration. Chapter VI presents the results of the regional survey and provides topical and environmental information on the main habitation/cemetery complexes. The relative percentages of wares at each site provide a settement pattern for the period, which is then compared with an analysis using the technique of non-metric multidimensional scaling.

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The material relevant to the subject of this thesis is presented in two main divisions. - Chapters I-IV provide a descriptive survey and analysis of the treatment accorded streets from the beginning of their architectural elaboration in the Hellenistic period. In Chapter I the literary evidence for colonnaded streets, both primary and secondary, is considered. The argument about the origins and date of such planning is outlined and then the terminology utilized in ancient sources and its importance for an understanding of the history of the development of colonnaded streets is studied. In Chapter II the physical remains of street-architecture from the Hellenistic East and Republican West are dealt with chronologically. Two architectural traditions can be distinguished in this period: the Italic street-side portico which acts as an elaborated porch for the building behind and the Greek stoa, sometimes of great length, set on the edge of the roadway. Chapters III and IV follow the history of street management through the period from Augustus to Justinian, emphasizing the main trends in the types of architecture applied to streets. The Italic tradition is found to continue and, in areas such as North Africa, to take on a monumental appearance approaching the effect of the large-scale projects found in the East. The cities of Roman Syria contain some of the earliest and most extensive examples of monumental street-management. A survey of the known streets reveals that by the Severan period most cities and towns in the eastern Mediterranean exhibit some form of embellishment within the street-system and that the format begins to acquire an identity as a self-contained building type. The descriptive survey presented in Chapters I-IV provides the background against which the archaeological material gathered in Asia Minor can be set and evaluated. The information gathered during field work in the Greco- Roman cities of Turkey is presented in Chapters V and VI. Many of the architectural arrangements dealt with in these chapters are little known and poorly published. Hence the description and analysis of the colonnaded streets of Asia Minor provide a useful addition to the architectural history both of this area and of the building type. Of particular importance are cities such as Pergamon and Perge which contain early examples of comprehensive schemes of extensive street-management and a group of cities in southwestern Turkey in which a specialized colonnaded mall was developed, exploiting the natural topographical conditions. The cities of Asia Minor are grouped into two broad categories according to the nature of the streets chosen for embellishment. In Chapter V the cities exhibiting an extensive use of colonnaded streets are studied. The cities whose townscape features a single decorated thoroughfare are treated in Chapter VI. Such cities include both the extended colonnaded street defining the length or breadth of a town and the more specialized mall-like configurations which are limited to a short section of roadway. - Two appendices contain all colonnaded streets known from ancient or modern literary, sources for which the evidence on the ground is limited or non-existent.