Archaeologists have been aware of the potential of satellite imagery as a tool almost since the first Earth remote sensing satellite. Initially sensors such as Landsat had a ground resolution which was too coarse for thorough archaeological prospection although the imagery was used for geo-archaeological and enviro-archaeological analyses. In the intervening years the spatial and spectral resolution of these sensing devices has improved. In recent years two important occurrences enhanced the archaeological applicability of imagery from satellite platforms: The declassification of high resolution photography by the American and Russian governments and the deregulation of commercial remote sensing systems allowing the collection of sub metre resolution imagery. This thesis aims to evaluate the archaeological application of three potentially important resources; Corona space photography and Ikonos panchromatic and multispectral imager). These resources are evaluated in conjunction with Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM) imagery over a 600 square km study area in the semi-arid environment around Homs, Syria. The archaeological resource in this area is poorly understood, mapped and documented. The images are evaluated for their ability to create thematic layers and to locate archaeological residues in different environmental zones. Further consideration is given to the physical factors that allow archaeological residues to be identified and how satellite imagery and modern technology may impact on Cultural Resource Management. This research demonstrates that modern high resolution and historic satellite imagery can be important tools for archaeologists studying in semi-arid environments. The imagery has allowed a representative range of archaeological features and landscape themes to be identified. The research shows that the use of satellite imagery can have significant impact on the design of the archaeological survey in the middle-east and perhaps in other environments.

This thesis discusses the potential of airborne thermal prospection for detecting shallow ground disturbance beneath vegetation based on images acquired by the NERC Airborne Thematic Mapper (ATM) at thermal infrared wavelengths. Shallow ground disturbance creates a differential heat flux due to a variation in the thermal properties between disturbed and undisturbed soils. When observed above a canopy, the effect of vegetation growth on the thermal regime of the underlying soils is poorly understood. The research extends current understanding by examining areas where ground disturbance is known to exist under variable vegetation cover at an archaeological site at Bosworth, Leicestershire and areas of abandoned mine activity on Baildon Moor, W. Yorkshire and in the N. Pennine Orefield, Weardale. The investigation focuses on qualitative image interpretation techniques, where anomalies on day and night thermal images are compared with those manifest on the multispectral images, and a more quantitative approach of Apparent Thermal Inertia (ATI) modelling. Physical thermal inertia is a parameter that is sensitive to volumetric variations in the soil, but cannot be measured directly using remote sensing techniques. However, an apparent thermal inertia is determined by examining the day and night temperature contrast of the surface, where spatial variations can signify potential features buried in the near-surface environment. Ground temperature profiling at the Bosworth site indicates that diurnal heat dissipates between 0.20-0.50m at an early stage in vegetation development with progressively lower diurnal amplitudes observed at 0.20m as the vegetation develops. Results also show that the time of diurnal maximum temperature occurs progressively later as vegetation develops, implying an importance for thermal image acquisition. The quantitative investigation concentrates on the Bosworth site where extensive ground geophysical prospection was performed and vertical soil samples extracted across features of variable multispectral, thermal and ATI response to enable comparison of the observed airborne thermal response with physical soil properties. Results suggest that there is a high correlation between ATI and soil moisture properties at 0.15-0.25m depth (R(^2)=0.99) at an early stage in cereal crop development but has a high correlation at a wider depth range (0.10-0.30m) at a later stage in development (R(^2)=0.98). The high correlation between physical ground disturbance and the thermal response is also corroborated qualitatively with the results of the resistivity surveys. The ATI modelling reveals similar features to those evident on day or night thermal images at an early stage in vegetation growth, suggesting that thermal imaging during the day at an early stage in vegetation growth may supply sufficient information on features buried in the near-surface environment. Airborne thermal imaging therefore provides a useful complementary prospection tool for archaeological and geological applications for surfaces covered by vegetation.

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Maritime archaeologists are increasingly required to investigate important sites in a nondestructive manner. Therefore, this thesis aimed to adapt and apply sub-bottom acoustic techniques to shallowly buried shipwrecks and submerged palaeo-landsurfaces. The imaging of archaeological sites requires a geophysical source with high resolving power. A model was developed to determine the vertical resolution of the Chirp sub-bottom profiler, the source used throughout this thesis. The horizontal resolution, on the other hand, was determined by modelling the directivity pattern of an array of Chirp transducers. The results were then used to choose a suitable Chirp sweep to image shallowly buried objects. Three sites were selected to test the ability of the system to image, reconstruct and characterize archaeological material. The first site comprised of a shipwreck buried within muddy riverine sediments: the Grace Dieu (1418). The survey utilized both a 2D- and 3D-Chirp system. In both cases, the source was pushed over the site by divers. Close survey line spacing, accurate navigation and decimeter-scale resolution data enabled the construction of a pseudo- and full 3D-image of the site. In the second site, the Yarmouth Roads Wreck (16th century), an acoustic blanking zone, a consequence of the highly attenuating character of degraded wood, was detected and used to create maps of the buried remains. The final site concentrated on the detection of peat layers in the English Channel, which are crux to palaeo-landscape reconstructions. Results suggest that peat buried in fine to medium grained sediments has an easily identifiable acoustic signature. The seismic data acquired for the aforementioned case studies was subsequently used for quantitative studies of the buried material. Firstly, reflection coefficients were calculated and used to determine the degradation state of the hull remains. Secondly, the Quality factor was calculated for the Yarmouth Roads Wreck site to objectively demonstrate the highly attenuating character of degraded wood buried in sediments in comparison to the surrounding sediments. Overall, this PhD has demonstrated the potential of the Chirp sub-bottom system for archaeological purposes, by creating (pseudo-) 3D reconstructions and making object characterization possible.