This study was undertaken while the author held a Ministry of Education State Studentship at the Department of Archaeology in Durham and, since October 1961, a Research Fellowship in the University of Birmingham. I would like to record my debt of gratitude to my supervisor Professor Eric Birley and Dr. J.C Mann of the Department of Archaeology in Durham. In the Spring and early Summer of 1960 I spent some time travelling in Yugoslavia, and here I would like to thank some of the many people who helped me to carry out my research. In particular I would like to express my gratitude to Professor Grga Novak, President of the Yugoslav Academy of Arts and Sciences in Zagreb; Professor D. Rendic-Miocevic and Mr. M. Zaninovic of the University of Zagreb; Dr. Esad Pasalio of the University of Sarajevo; Dr. Dimitri Sergejevski and Miss Irma Crremosnik of the Museum in Sarajevo; Dr. B. Gabricevic and Dr. N. Nikolanc of the Archaeological Museum in Split; Dr. M. Suic of the Museum and Historical Faculty in Zadar. Without the generous co-operation of many of the above it would have proved impossible for me to have visited many of the key sites in Dalmatia which lie far away from public transport routes. On this point especially, I would like to thank the Secretaries of the Communes of Zadar and Sinj for placing vehicles at my disposal. For assistance in the preparation of this thesis I would like to acknowledge the help of Mr. C.D.N. Costa and Dr. J.D. Eshelby of the University of Birmingham, and Miss Christine Pittarn of the University Library in Birmingham for undertaking the typing. The absence of a map calls for explanation. For points of topography only detailed maps of the largest scale would be of any value. However, all the places referred to are recorded on Kiepert’s map in CIL III (suppl ii taf. VI), and in the very few instances where this is not the case more precise details of location with regard to neighbouring centres are given.

This thesis presents the archaeological evidence for Byzantine mortuary practices or burial customs between c950-1453. This consists of published and unpublished material from a number of selected sites, studied with reference to primary sources, anthropology and archaeological theory. Four main questions are posed: 1. To ask what archaeology can tell us about the organisation of burial. 2. To ascertain what contribution cemeteries, tombs and their contents can make to the study of hierarchy in Byzantine society. 3. Whether datable features in some burials can be used to date others lacking such evidence, and if so, how far can any development over time be detected. 4. To trace how far burial practices were determined by local or cosmopolitan factors, and to what extent did influences pass between metropolitan centres and the provinces. The main text (VOLUME I) is divided into three parts discussing these questions within the contexts of cemeteries and burial churches (PART I, CHAPTERS 1-3), the tombs themselves (CHAPTERS 4-8), and the associated objects (CHAPTERS 9-16). Typologies of tombs and associated artifacts are proposed, together with analytical methodologies for their interpretation based upon archaeological and primary sources. Models derived from these analyses are then tested upon other excavated material. The results of these studies are discussed in the CONCLUSION. This thesis concludes that burial in the Byzantine Empire was highly organised and designed to express social hierarchy through the location, style and contents of burials. Byzantine mortuary practices were not static and were constantly mutating to meet practical, social and spiritual needs. Local resources, social display, religious beliefs and external influences acted as the catalysts for change. The range of artifacts associated with Byzantine' burials is more extensive than perhaps expected, and some changes in Byzantine burial after 1204 can be attributed to Western influence, suggesting that the impact of the Frankish conquest upon Byzantium should be re-assessedI.n addition, the study of Byzantine funerary archaeology can give fresh insights upon Byzantine society and its uses of material culture, and can contribute to theoretical debate upon funerary archaeology. VOLUME II is THE DATABASE -a gazetteerc ollection of Site Studies,w hich presents the essential chronological foundation for the main text together with catalogues of tombs and artifacts from the sites under discussion. This is followed by 344 figures preceded by a list of captions.

This study describesa nd analyses the painted murals contained within selected ancient tombs in the Eastern region of Libya (Cyrenaica), with particular reference to tombs in the North and West Necropolises of Cyrene. Chapter One outlines the purpose of the study, and describes the geography and history of the area, including a summary of earlier expeditions to the tombs, and of descriptions of the murals and architecture. The reasons for selecting the particular sites are discussed, and the next three chapters are analytical studies of the individual murals, including their location, (approximate) dating, detailed descriptions of the exterior and interior, and comparison with earlier descriptions. Chapter Two deals with the tombs from the Hellenistic period. Chapter Three discusses two Roman tombs, and, briefly, the painted tomb at Tocra described by Porcher. Chapter Four discusses Later Roman and Christian-influenced murals in tombs and in the cavern at Kedra, and important features of a Hellenistic tomb that was re-used during the Roman period. Two painted tombs outside the area of Cyrene are also discussed. The fifth and final chapter gives an overview of the entire thesis, discusses the key points, and sets the Libyan material in its ancient context. This study is a detailed account of the wall murals and decorative features. It highlights their value, and the contribution they make to the study of past culture and history in Cyrenaica, and hopes to raise awareness of the need to preserve these valuable historical paintings.

This thesis explores the operation sequences of the production, processing, and storage of cereal crops in inland Thrace during the second half of the first millennium BC. This period saw the rise of tribal states and the appearance of urban centres in the Thracian hinterland with important trading links with Classical Greece and the Hellenistic world. By combining archaeological data with archaeobotanical and ethnographic studies as well as the available documentary and iconographic sources, the research addresses questions regarding access and ownership of arable land, the intended purpose of agricultural produce as well as tradition and novelty in the agricultural methods and tools. The presentation of the geographical characteristics of the region demonstrates its favourable conditions for agriculture, while the palynological data suggest that woodland clearance for arable and pasture land increased during the second half of the first millennium BC. The available archaeobotanical studies reveal the variety of species cultivated by the local Thracian population and demonstrate the primary position of cereal food in the diet. A major change in the preferred cereal species has been attested during the Late Iron Age with bread/durum wheat being predominant as opposed to einkorn and emmer. The investigation of agricultural tools and structures connected to cereal crop production, storage, and processing reveals not only the tradition in the employed implements but also the adoption of advanced techniques by the local Thracian communities. While the discovery of agricultural implements at the major urban sites, which are better excavated and provide more secure dating, is of great significance, our knowledge about the Thracian countryside is still very limited. The deposition of farming tools at cult sites - peak sanctuaries and pit complexes - sheds light on the importance of agriculture in the practised rituals. Ethnographic parallels as well as the available iconographic sources and literary references assist in the reconstruction of past farming practices and implements. The comprehensive analysis of the different stages involved in cereal crop production contributes to our understanding of the economic choices and social complexity of Thracian society.

Fortified buildings (in Arabic known as qsur, singular qasr) that stand isolated or formed part of wider settlements are a common phenomenon that existed in many regions of Roman Africa, especially in the late Roman and late antique periods. Different interpretations of the defensive appearance of the qsur in Africa (and parallels in different parts of the Roman Empire) have been advanced. In terms of Cyrenaica, this remarkable class of sites, though the most obvious archaeological monuments of the countryside, has not received a great deal of attention in the past. Therefore, the main aim of this thesis was to make a systematic study of the typology, chronology and function of these fortified structures, drawing on archaeological and literary sources and my own fieldwork. I carried out a combination of extensive and intensive archaeological, topographical and landscape survey in the region of Wadi al-Kuf in Cyrenaica. In three different topographical blocks covering a total area of about 1,350 km2, a total of 55 sites was documented (42 sites were recorded for the first time by my survey). An attempt is made to distinguish between potential military and civilian sites on the basis of locational and architectural factors. A broad framework is provided by interpreting the limited dating evidence and supported by comparison with similar sites from other regions of the Roman Empire, particularly in Tripolitania. This research has made original contributions to determining the architecture, typology and chronology of qsur in the survey region and overall it has increased our knowledge of rural settlement in the Wadi al-Kuf region.

No description available.

This thesis examines the results of an archaeological survey along a 50 km coastal strip of al-Jabal al-Akhdar (Green Mountain) in Cyrenaica (north-eastern Libya). The survey aimed to assess Cyrenaican ports during the Roman period, and secondary and minor harbours in particular. The conclusions demonstrate that a significant amount of productive and trading activity took place in this area in antiquity. This challenges previous assumptions that only major ports such as Apollonia, Ptolemais and Berenice were involved in trade. This study demonstrates the potential of secondary and small harbours to inform research about the economic role, mechanisms and hierarchy of harbours, in contrast to the prevalent trend among scholars to focus on the study of mega and major-ports. The new evidence has greatly increased our knowledge about productive activity along the coast of Cyrenaica, for example via the identification of 12 new amphora kilns. Initial estimates of the capacity of the vats recorded suggest that these harbours were involved in large-scale manufacturing. A further important strand of research involved an in-depth study of the physical features of the harbours and the construction techniques used in the buildings. An initial typology of these harbours was created to distinguish their roles and hierarchy, and provide a broader framework for their chronology. This analysis suggested that the secondary and minor harbours and other major ports were all well organised and interconnected. Each harbour seems to have played a particular role within the complex trade networks operating out of Cyrenaica. Finally, an investigation of the products imported to Cyrenaican harbours over time uses the ceramic evidence recorded during field survey or published sherds. This allows the discussion of some of the principal components of the import-export trade. A detailed gazetteer of the sites studied is presented in the appendices.

The aim of this project is to contribute to the socioeconomic and demographic history of late Byzantium and the early Ottoman Empire by choosing a well documented region as its particular subject and studying it through the transitional period of the 146' and 15th centuries. As a result, the author works on both sides of the disciplinary frontier between Byzantine and Ottoman studies. The present approach to the social history of the region is based on the process of the distribution of revenue, which is basically a question of land distribution and proprietorship as it was realized in the general context of a predominantly agrarian economy. The first six chapters include a presentation and analysis of matters concerning the possession and control of lands and related revenues in two different sociopolitical contexts, the late Byzantine one, that is marked by decentralization and centrifugal tendencies, opposite the relatively centralist one of the early Ottoman empire. Under those circumstances the establishment of Ottoman rule resulted in the gradual disappearance of the late Byzantine elite of individual landholders. The monasteries also 'suffered a serious reduction of the properties they had obtained during the 14th century. On the other hand, the economic structures and productive activities remained basically the same throughout the two centuries that concern us here irrespective of the imposition of a different system of government and the introduction of new cultural elements that accompanied the Ottoman conquest. These matters form the subject of the last two chapters, which deal with the economic structures and productive activities in the towns of the region (Serres, Zichna and Chrysoupolis) and the villages of the countryside. These two chapters also include a discussion on the measure of the region's population, which constitutes the demographic aspect of the study.

The subject of this dissertation is the study of the byzantine church of Krena in the island of Chios. The importance of the church lies not just in that it has survived virtually unspoilt in architectural terms, nor in that it preserves almost intact its original mural decoration, but in the fact that it belongs to the small group of precisely dated monuments of the late Komnenian period. A painted inscription in the narthex gives the date 1197, while the names of two Byzantine families of the period are encountered in the mural decoration of the church, namely the surnames Kodratos and Pagomenos. Hence, the study of the Byzantine church of Krena contributes to our understanding of the trends in Byzantine architecture and painting in the East Aegean region and the western Asia Minor during the end of the twelfth century, shortly before the Sack of Constantinople by the Latins. Moreover, the monument appears to constitute a key monument for the study of Byzantine art during the late twelfth century, expressing the new pictorial and aesthetic tendencies of the new era. The thesis is divided into the following main chapters: 1. HISTORICHAL FRAMEWORK First there is a brief history of Chios during the 11 th and 1 i h centuries. Taking into account the historical events of the period a comprehensive outline of the administrative, economic and social history of the island is attempted (1.1). Second, after a short reference to travelers' testimonies concerning the toponym Krena and the church of the Virgin itself (1.2), there is a detailed discussion of the founders' of the church, namely Eustathios Kodratos, and the Metropolitan of Hypaipa, Stephanos Pepagomenos, uncle of Kodratos' wife, a certain Pagomeni. The career of the two men is traced, as well as the social background of their families and their connection with the central imperial authority (1.3). Finally, there is the evidence of the inscriptions that exist on various marble architectural members, as well as in the painted decoration of the church. Except for the founders' inscriptions there are some others, which give precious infOlmation concerning the histOlY of the monument from the period of its foundation, at the end of the twelfth century, until the end of the nineteenth century (1.4). 2. ARCHITECTURE The chapter on the architecture deals first with a discussion on the origin of the domed octagon type, whose Krena is one of the latest dated examples (2.1). Next, there is a survey of the structural history of the church, focusing to its various architectural phases (2.2). Special references are made to the general structural features of the church (2.3). Domes, walls, openings either in the interior or in the exterior of the church, ceramoplastic decoration are examined in detail. An impOliant role for the original reconstruction of the upper parts of the church, after their destruction during the earthquake of 1881, plays the depicted model of the church offering from the founder Eustathios Kodratos to the Virgin. Finally, the contribution of Krena to the architecture of the twelfth century is discussed (2.4). Although, the main architectural type of Krena has its roots in a much earlier architectural film, not usual on the twelfth century, that of the octagon type, the monument employs new features which stress the plasticity of the exterior, making it a forerunner of Lascarid and consequently of Palaeologan architecture.

No description available.