Portraits of sufferers and patients in the long eighteenth century have been understudied – especially by comparison with portraits of doctors and other visual imagery that supposedly illuminates long eighteenth-century medical history. Yet these portraits – and the art historical methods used to analyse them – yield important new insights into the social history of medicine of this period. Such portraits were used to convey how identity was affected by illness. They were the means for debating contemporary standards of bodily judgment and character perception. In clinical settings, they were the means for doctors to analyse and compare cases. They also recorded what diseases looked like, in doing so shaping how doctors conceived of diseases and patients’ identity. In publications, portraits of sufferers and patients inscribed the medical knowledge that doctors sought to disseminate by embodying ‘expert’ visual skills. Finally, in wider cultural contexts, they expressed what was medical about the relationships that contemporaries conducted. These findings propel the histories not only of patients and ‘suffering’, but also of doctors and medical relationships – four key concerns of recent scholarship. The thesis stresses the specificity of portraiture. Portraits are analysed on their own terms alongside other visual and textual sources. This method complements the way contemporaries were ‘interdisciplinary’ as a matter of course. Meanwhile, focussing on portraiture – at once a mediating process, a technology and a genre of art – allows themes of agency, knowledge, power and representation to be intertwined. Moreover, instead of focussing attention only on doctors and patients (as people as well as medical categories), portraits reveal that medical agency is distributed between all those whose interests were at stake and advanced by the making and seeing of such portraits. Finally, this study suggests ways of setting up longue-durée comparisons between different forms of representation across different periods.

This study i s concerned with relationships between Celtic Scotland and pre-Viking Northumbria. In an earlier dissertation for the degree of Master of Arts, a survey mas made of military and political relationships between Northumbria and the Celtic peoples of Strathclyde and Scotland, c.500- 850. The present thesis , while devoting attention to a reconsideration of the chronology of the Anglo-Saxon Conquest in Northumbria, is primarily concerned with ecclesiastical and artistic links.

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The aim of this thesis is to reconsider Sir William Petty’s later years, and examine his ambitions for England contained in his reform agenda written between 1685 and 1687. This period of his life has been comparatively neglected in the secondary literature, as have his largely unpublished writings during this time. Petty’s agenda was designed to achieve his vision of a powerful and prosperous England and, with the accession of lames to the throne, he thought that, at long last, he was in a position to influence policy. This thesis will show that he had repeated access to the monarch to present his ideas and proposals. Petty’s reform agenda is wide-ranging and covers many aspects of national life and international policy. It is particularly enlightening about his lack of allegiance to any particular political ideology. Seen as a transitional figure in the history of economic thought, his reform agenda reveals him also to be a transitional figure politically -his ideas move from reflecting traditional ways of thinking, to those that put him close to many Whig writers at the time. His more radical reforms stand by themselves, and show him as a strikingly original thinker. When writing his agenda, Petty moved away from the discursive style of his earlier works into a way of presenting it, notably with plentiful quantitative justification, which can be seen as a more modem form of policy proposal. Coming from a man for whom practical application was of great importance who believed he could now influence policy, Petty’s reform agenda is both revealing of his views and represents the culmination of his work.

This commentary examines the development of castle studies in Britain since 1945, based on an examination of published works. The first chapter outlines the development of castle studies before 1945. The remaining chapters chronicle briefly the important aspects of castle studies since then, detailed under various themes, which have been documented in my bibliographies and my general surveys from the late 1970s onwards, with a closing chapter on my role in the subject. My involvement in the study of castles and later fortifications began in the closing days of 1969 when I began work in the Library of the Society of Antiquaries of London. It was not long before I discovered not only the wealth of material that had been written on castles, but that castle studies was treated as an academic subject, and a subject that had been growing in importance from the 1960s. I was guided in my introduction to the subject by two men in particular: Dr Arnold Taylor, one of the Antiquaries' officers who had appointed me, and Dr Derek Renn. Renn, a government actuary by profession, spent much time in the Antiquaries' library every week, and became my unofficial mentor in castle studies. Taylor, whose heavy involvement with the Society of Antiquaries, combined with his role as Chief Inspector of Ancient Monuments, meant that his time was limited, looked kindly upon this enthusiastic amateur, especially in later years. Having qualified as a professional librarian whilst at the Society of Antiquaries, I realized that I needed a degree, whether I remained as a librarian or branched out into archaeology. I therefore spent three years at the University of Southampton (1974–77), reading history and archaeology, and it was during that time that my first publication appeared, an article in the new journal Fort, linked to my work on a BA dissertation. Work on the documentary aspects of early post-medieval fortification began while I was at the History Faculty Library in the University of Oxford (1977–79) and when I started at the National Museum of Wales (1979 onwards)—see Appendix—but it was not long before castle studies became the main thrust of my studies.

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This thesis explores the significance of the human use of caves across the British Isles during the first millennia BC and AD (c.800 BC- 800 AD). Thus far, work has often focused on individual cave assemblages or has discussed cave-use as an adjunct to wider research as part of specific regional and chronological narratives. Whilst such studies demonstrate the potential importance of caves in the lifeways of past communities, these sites lack an overall context and more work is needed in order to integrate these places within wider narratives of first millennia Britain. As such, this study provides the first comprehensive overview and discussion of the role of caves during the Iron Age, Roman Iron Age and Early Medieval period across England, Wales and Scotland. Using an integrated approach, combining studies of patterns of deposition inside caves with spatial and viewshed analysis of location, this thesis sets out to move away from treating caves as isolated backdrops of activity to examine how these sites, through their morphology and landscape position, influenced human selection and use. It becomes evident that despite cave-use being chronologically and regionally diverse, caves were important sites in many coastal and upland regions, often chosen because of the nature of their morphology and relationship to certain areas of the landscape. Furthermore, similarities in the nature of deposition in caves to that recorded elsewhere in other natural places and archaeological sites, along with the use and construction of manmade subterranean spaces, demonstrates that cave-use was intrinsically linked to wider social concepts of natural places, landscapes and the underground in general. These results enhance our understanding not only of the nature of cave-use during the first millennia but also how these communities perceived the world around them.

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