Prior to the first century BC there is little evidence for any religious architecture at Baalbek or in the Bekaa valley, but by the mid third century the ancient city of Baalbek-Heliopolis hosted one of the largest religious sanctuaries within the Roman Empire and at least forty temples of various sizes were constructed in the Bekaa valley. The northern Bekaa valley was included in the territory of the colony of Berytus in 15 BC and this study aims to understand the extent to which the Bekaa valley is a product of colonial landscape conversion.1 To achieve this aim the study evaluates sources for Baalbek and the Bekaa including previous archaeological research and the methodologies that have been used. The origins of settlement and cult practice at Baalbek-Heliopolis are examined along with the role the Ituraeans may have played at the site during the period of study. The chronology of the development of Baalbek-Heliopolis is considered alongside an assessment of the deities worshipped there including the so-called “Heliopolitan Triad”. The role of euergetism at Baalbek-Heliopolis is explored as well as the extent of Military involvement. GIS analysis is used to study the relationship of the temples at Baalbek-Heliopolis with the surrounding landscape. The study concludes by exploring the worship of Jupiter Heliopolitanus outside the Bekaa valley and its relation to cult at Baalbek- Heliopolis. The thesis comprehensively challenges the previous view that Baalbek-Heliopolis was a cult site dating back to the Bronze Age where the Phoenician deities Hadad and Astarte were worshipped. It replaces this with a picture of the development of a Roman city within a colonial context where a major religious centre developed with no links to earlier deities. As such the character of the colonial development is seen to be almost entirely intrusive in nature.

Cette thèse porte sur les événements libanais ayant entrainé à la crise libanaise de 1982 et les conséquences qui en découlèrent jusqu’à la signature de l’accord de Taef. Ce travail de recherche fait, en premier lieu, l’objet d’une étude des causes directes et indirectes qui s’accompagne d’un tableau des différents acteurs, internes et externes, impliqués dans cet évènement, ainsi que du rôle que chacun d’eux a joué durant cette crise. Tout ceci mène à une réflexion approfondie de l’année de 1982 durant laquelle l’armée israélienne a envahi le territoire libanais et assiégé la capitale du pays de cèdre. Cette réflexion se développe autour du rôle et des réactions des grandes puissances au Liban pendant l’opération de 1982, et plus largement au cours de la guerre civile, sans en omettre pour autant les conséquences que cet acte militaire a eu sur les israéliens et les palestiniens, notamment ceux du Liban. À l’issue de cette opération, le Liban entre dans une nouvelle phase de sa crise. Milices musulmanes et chrétiennes s’entretuent entre elles, le pays fut abandonné à son sort malgré quelques tentatives de réconciliation à Genève et à Lausanne. Cette analyse s’achève par un bilan détaillé de la période aboutissant à la fin de la guerre, avec la présence du général Aron au pouvoir et de ses aventures militaires, qui s’achèvent par la signature de l’accord de Taef. Ce dernier est une fabrication étrangère mise en place à l’aide d’outils libanais qui marque l’arrêt des combats et, officiellement, la fin de la guerre civile libanaise. Le Liban doit, à partir de ce moment-là, se reconstruire / This thesis focuses on the Lebanese events which led to the Lebanese crisis of 1982 and theconsequences that gushed up till the signing of the Taif Agreement. This work of research constitutes, in the first place, the object of a study of the direct and indirect causes which is accompanied by an array of actors, internal and external, involved in this event, and the role played by each of them in this crisis. All these lead to a further reflection of the year 1982, during which the Israeli army invaded Lebanon and besieged the capital of the country of cedars. This reflection is developed during the role and responses of major powers in Lebanon during the operation of 1982, and more widely during the Civil War, without omitting the consequences that this military action had on the Israelis and Palestinians, especially those inLebanon. Following this operation, Lebanon enters a new phase of its crisis; Muslim and Christian militias are fighting each other; the country was left to its fate despite some attempts at reconciliation in Geneva and Lausanne. This analysis ended by a detailed outcome of the period leading to the end of the war, in the presence of General Aoun in the authority and his military adventures, which ended with the signing of the Taif accord. The latter is a foreign fabrication established by Lebanese tools that marks the end of fighting and, officially, the end of the Lebanese civil war. Lebanon has, from that time, to rebuild