Clusters of galaxies provide a unique opportunity to simultaneously study cosmology through low scatter scaling relations and the complex baryonic physics that occurs in cluster cores. As such it is of key importance to quantify the effects of the various physical processes that drive cluster evolution. In this thesis a sample of 30 clusters from the Millennium Gas Simulation, of masses 10^14/h Solar Masses < M200 < 10^15/h Solar Masses, were selected and run at a higher resolution using the re-simulation technique, using a modified version of Gadget-2, an N-body SPH code. Each cluster was run multiple times with increasing levels of sub-grid physics in order to separate the different effects that govern cluster evolution. The models implemented starting with non-radiative (NR), simulations then added cooling and star formation (CSF), supernova feedback (SFB) and AGN feedback model (AGN) respectively. In order to best match observations a study of supernova and AGN feedback parameters was conducted. The sample of clusters were also used to quantify the magnitude of biases created when observing clusters, in an attempt to classify the accuracy of these measurements of clusters. Additionally, the effects of the biases were also included in the estimation of the cluster mass using hydrostatic equilibrium. The best match to the observed gas, star and baryon fractions, scaling relations and gas profiles was found when powerful supernova feedback was included, which heats gas particles to 10^7K, and an AGN model whose heating temperature scales with the final virial temperature of the cluster, so that particles in a 10^14/h Solar masses and 10^15/h Solar Masses cluster are heated to 10^8K and 10^8.5 K respectively. Outside the core, this model successfully matches all the observed profiles and scaling relations excluding the spectrascopic-like temperature. The core region is simulated with come success, with pressures matching those observed but gas that is too cool and dense, resulting in an inability to reproduce the non cool core entropy profiles. Cold dense gas is more heavily weighted in the spectrascopic-like temperature, allowing significant contributions from gas in substructures and cold dense clumps of gas that are un-ascociated with any substructures and seems to be an artificial construct of SPH. When this gas is removed using the method outlines in \cite{Roncarelli2006}, temperatures outside the core match observations, but the core region is still too dense and cool. Clearly this core region requires more complex physics, possibly through implementation of an improved SPH code or more complex sub-grid physics such as that associated with the AGN feedback. The bias profiles also exhibit a similar sensitivity to the cool dense gas clumps, having a profound effect on the observed profiles and creating significant scatter in the mass estimated using hydrostatic equilibrium. Removing this cold dense gas using the Roncarelli method results in reduced biases and hydrostatic mass estimates closer to the true values. The resulting scaling relations and profiles including the effects of biases differ from those without the biases, but not significantly. It is clear that biases can affect the observed profiles and scaling relations, but this effect is minimised by excluding the coldest densest gas. As the choice of how much gas is removed is somewhat arbitrary, it is clear that further work in this field would require better SPH implementations that do not produce the erroneous dense gas clumps and the generation of mock observations using the simulated data.

Quasar outflows are a major candidate for Active Galactic Nuclei (AGN) feedback, and their capacity to influence the evolution of their host galaxy depends on the mass-flow rate (M) and kinetic luminosity (E) of the outflowing material. Both quantities require measurement of the distance (R) to the outflow from the central source as well as physical conditions of the outflow, which can be determined using spectral observations of the quasar. This thesis presents spectral analyses leading to measurements of R, M and E for three different quasar outflows. Analysis of LBQS J1206+1052 revealed multiple diagnostic spectral features that could each be used to independently determine R. These diagnostics yielded measurements that were in close agreement, resulting in a robust outflow distance of 840 pc from the central source. This measurement is much larger than predicted from radiative acceleration models (~0.01-0.1 pc), suggesting that outflows appear much farther from the central source than is generally assumed. The outflow in SDSS J0831+0354 was found to carry a kinetic luminosity of 10^45.7 erg/s, which corresponds to 5.2 per cent of the Eddington luminosity of the quasar. This outflow is one of the most energetic outflows to date and satisfies the criteria required to produce AGN feedback effects. A variability study of NGC 5548 revealed an obscuring cloud of gas that shielded the outflow components, dramatically lowering their ionization state. This resulted in the appearance of absorption from the rare element Phosphorus, as well as from sparsely-populated energy levels of CIII and SiIII. These spectral features allowed for an accurate determination of R and for constraints on the ionization phase to be obtained. The latter constraints were used to develop a self-consistent model that explained the variability of all six outflow components during five observing epochs spanning 16 years. / Ph. D.

Active galaxies have been in the forefront of astronomic research since their first discovery, at least 50 years ago (e.g. Schmidt, 1963; Matthews & Sandage, 1963). The putative supermassive black hole (SMBH) at their center characterizes their properties and regulates the evolution of these objects. In this thesis, I study the 'demographics' and 'ecology' of active galactic nuclei (AGN) in the context of their evolution and the interaction with their environments (mainly their host galaxy). The number density of AGN has been found to peak at 1 < z < 3 (e.g. Ueda et al., 2003; Hasinger et al., 2005; Richards et al., 2005; Aird et al., 2010), similar to the star formation history (e.g. Silverman et al., 2008a; Aird et al., 2010). However, when taking into account obscuration, faint AGN are found to peak at lower redshift (z ≤ 2) than that of bright AGN (z ≈ 2 - 3; e.g. Hasinger et al., 2005; Hopkins et al., 2007; Xue et al., 2011). This qualitative behaviour is also broadly seen in star-forming galaxies (e.g. Cowie et al., 1996) and is often referred to as 'cosmic downsizing', although this term has developed a number of usages with respect to galaxies (e.g. Bundy et al., 2006; Cimatti et al., 2006; Faber et al., 2007; Fontanot et al., 2009). Though this behaviour is well established up to z ≈ 3, the nature of how and when the initial seed of these AGNs were formed remains an open question. For this study, I use Chandra surveys to study some of the most distant AGN in the Universe (z > 3). The combination of two different size and depth Chandra surveys (Chandra-COSMOS and ChaMP) provides me with the largest to-date z > 3 AGN sample, over a wide range of rest-frame 2-10 keV luminosities [log (Lₓ/erg s⁻¹) = 43.3-46.0] and obscuration (NH = 10²⁰ - 10²³ cm⁻²). I find strong evidence about a strong decline in number density of X-ray AGN above z ≈ 3, and also the association of this decline with a luminosity-dependent density evolution (LDDE; e.g. Gilli et al., 2007). Especially at high redshifts, the different evolution models predict quite different numbers of AGNs. The large size and the wide X-ray luminosity range of this sample reduces the uncertainties of previous studies at similar redshifts making it possible to distinguish between the different models and suggest that observations appear to favour the LDDE model. The observed AGN downsizing behaviour seen via the measured X-ray luminosity function (XLF) could arise due to changes in the mass of the typical active SMBH and/or changes in the typical accretion rate. But how does the growth of SMBHs over cosmic time influence its environment? A powerful way to address this question is to compare the host galaxy properties over a wide range of AGN and accretion rate types. Radio-jets are one of the most prominent constituents of AGN as they can interact directly with the host galaxy. Although AGN with radio jets are rare (they make up to 10 per cent of the total AGN population) radio galaxies make up over 30 per cent of the massive galaxy population and it is likely that all massive galaxies go through a radio-loud phase, as the activity is expected to be cyclical (e.g Best et al., 2005). It is therefore, important to investigate the impact of radio jets on the host galaxy and particularly the star formation. The method I follow focuses on the comparison of the host galaxy properties between optically selected quasar samples, with and without strong radio emission associated with powerful radio-jets, matched in AGN luminosity. Herschel far-infrared observations are used to trace the star formation in the host galaxy, providing minimal AGN contamination. In my first approach, I have constructed a sample of radio-loud and radio-quiet quasars from the Faint Images Radio Sky at Twenty-one centimetres (FIRST) and the Sloan Digital Sky Survey Data Release 7 (SDSS DR7), over the H-ATLAS Phase 1 Area (9h, 12h and 14.5h). The main result of this work is that RLQs at lower AGN luminosities tend to have on average higher FIR and 250-μm luminosity with respect to RQQs matched in AGN luminosity and redshift. However, evolution effects could be strong as the quasars in this sample cover a wide range of redshifts (0.4 < z < 5). Therefore, I follow a second approach with the advantage of a QSO sample selection at a single redshift epoch, decomposing the evolution effects from the AGN/star-formation study. The results indicate that radio-jets in powerful QSOs can both suppress and enhance the star formation in their host galaxies. These fundings are consistent with a galaxy mass and jet-power dependence model. Then we expect more massive galaxies to have more star-formation for a given jet-power because their star-formation is more enhanced by the jet. Although radio-jets are the best candidates for a direct AGN impact to the host galaxy, many models refer to an AGN feedback associated with energetic AGN winds and outflows which are expected to suppress the star formation in powerful AGN when compared to the overall galaxy population. My results do not suggest star formation is suppressed in the hosts of optically selected QSOs at z ≈ 1, with more than 30 per cent of them being associated with strong star formation rates (SFR ≈ 350 M⊙ yr⁻¹). Although different interpretations are possible, this result can be explained through periods of enhanced AGN activity and star-forming bursts, possibly through major mergers. However, optical QSOs comprise only a small fraction of the total AGN population. Even if the 'unified model' predicts that the host galaxy properties should not be affected by the viewing angle (type-1 vs. type-2 AGN), several studies have shown results supporting a scenario departing from the basic model. Investigating star formation in the hosts of 24 μm selected type-1&2 AGN, I found that the type-2 AGNs display on average higher star-formation rate than type-1 AGNs. This result is in agreement with previous studies suggesting an undergoing transition between a hidden growth phase and an unobscured AGN phase.

No description available.

It is now believed that most, if not all, galaxies contain a supermassive black hole (SMBH) and that these play a crucial role in their host galaxies' evolution. Whilst accreting material, a SMBH (known as an active galactic nucleus, AGN, during this growth phase) releases energy which may have the effect of quenching star formation and constraining the growth of the galaxy. It is believed that AGNs can be divided into two broad fundamental categories, each with its own feedback mechanism. The radiative-mode of feedback occurs in gas-rich galaxies when substantial star formation is occurring and their young AGNs are growing rapidly through efficient accretion of cold gas. A fraction of the energy released by an AGN is transferred into the surrounding gas, creating a thermal "energy-driven" wind or pressure "momentum-driven" wind. Gas and dust may be expelled from the galaxy, so halting star formation but also cutting off the fuel supply to the AGN itself. The jet-mode occurs thereafter. The SMBH has now attained a large mass, but is accreting at a comparatively low level as gas slowly cools and falls back into the galaxy. The accretion process generates two-sided jets that generate shock fronts, so heating the gas surrounding the galaxy and partially offsetting the radiative cooling. This restricts the inflow of gas into the galaxy, so slowing the growth of the galaxy and SMBH. There are several convincing theoretical arguments to support the existence of these feedback mechanisms, although observational evidence has been hard to obtain. A new radio telescope - the Low Frequency Array (LOFAR) - recently started operations. LOFAR is especially suitable for investigating AGN feedback. It has been designed to allow exploration of low radio frequencies, between 10 and 240 MHz, which are particularly relevant for research into AGN activity. Also, with its large field-of-view and multi-beam capability, LOFAR is ideal for conducting extensive radio surveys. A project to image deeply the ELAIS-N1 field was started in May 2013. This thesis uses a number of surveys at different wavelengths, but particularly the low-frequency radio observations of the ELAIS-N1 field, to improve our knowledge of jet-mode AGN feedback and hence of the interplay between the complicated processes involved in galaxy formation and evolution. The more important pieces of research within the thesis are as follows: - A sample of 576 AGNs in the nearby universe was assembled and used to find a relationship between radio luminosity, X-ray luminosity and black hole mass. Moreover, the relationship is valid over at least 15 orders of magnitude in X-ray luminosity, strongly suggesting that the process responsible for the launching of radio jets is scale-invariant. - The established "Likelihood Ratio" technique was refined to incorporate colour information in order to optimally match the radio sources in the ELAIS-N1 field with their host galaxies. - The resulting catalogue was used to investigate ways in which radio sources can be matched automatically with their host galaxies (and so avoiding laborious visual examination of each source). The conclusions have helped the design of a pipeline for an extensive wide-area survey currently being conducted by the LOFAR telescope. - The catalogue was also used to investigate the evolution of jet-mode AGNs. This involved: deriving source counts; obtaining redshifts for each object; classifying the radio sources into the different populations of radiative-mode AGNs, jet-mode AGNs and star-forming galaxies; and using the above preparatory work in order to derive a luminosity function for jet-mode AGNs. - Key conclusions are that (1) feedback from jet-mode AGNs peaks at around a redshift of 0.75, (2) the space density of jet-mode AGNs declines steadily with redshift and (3) the typical luminosity of a jet-mode AGN increases steadily with redshift.

Les prédictions théoriques de refroidissement du gaz intra-amas depuis des températures de 10^7 K jusqu'à une phase très froide n'ont jamais été prouvées directement. L'apport des satellites Chandra et XMM-Newton a permis de mieux sonder le centre de certaines de ces grandes structures, où le courant de refroidissement a lieu. Un problème majeur est la question du devenir du gaz refroidi. Le travail présenté ici est la détection de gaz moléculaire au centre de plusieurs amas de galaxies, obtenues avec le télescope de 30m de l'IRAM. Ces détections vont dans le sens d'une possible identification du composant froid directement issu du courant de refroidissement. La quantité de gaz moléculaire estimée reste toutefois encore inférieure à ce que prévoient les taux de déposition de masse déduits de l'émission du gaz chaud. Afin de mieux comprendre l'origine de ce composant froid, une étude plus précise d'un amas particulier : Abell 1795 a été menée. L'analyse spectrale des données X du satellite Chandra a permis de dériver des propriétés importantes du gaz chaud (température, abondance, colonne densité, taux de déposition de masse). Pour comprendre le lien entre le gaz moléculaire et le courant de refroidissement, des observations en CO(1-0) et CO(2-1) d'Abell 1795 ont été menées avec l'interféromètre du Plateau de Bure (IRAM). La morphologie et la dynamique du gaz froid sont apparemment associées à celles des composants plus chauds. Ces observations sont donc compatibles avec un refroidissement du gaz jusqu'à très basse température, fournissant un réservoir de matière disponible pour nourrir la formation stellaire effectivement active au centre de l'amas. De nouvelles contraintes observationnelles sont maintenant envisagées (Plateau de Bure, VLT) sur un plus large échantillon pour tenter de comprendre plus clairement la place du gaz moléculaire, dans un scénario de courant de refroidissement où les processus de réchauffement sont certainement actifs.

Il y a de plus en plus d'indications que les trous noirs super-massifs ont joué un rôle important dans l'évolution des galaxies, en particulier au moment de la formation des galaxies les plus massives à haut décalage spectral vers le rouge (z ~ 2 - 3). Nous nous sommes attachés à quantifier les effets sur le milieu interstellaire des galaxies hôtes que peuvent avoir les jets des radio-galaxies, d'une part, et les importantes luminosités bolometriques des quasars, d'autre part. Pour cela, nous avons étudié la cinématique du gaz ionisé dans 12 radio-galaxies modérément puissantes et dans 11 quasars (6 avec une détection en radio et 5 sans jet détectable) à grand décalage spectral vers le rouge avec le spectro-imageur proche infra-rouge SINFONI du VLT, qui nous donnait accès aux raies d'émission normalement sitées dans le domaine visible. Afin d'évaluer la capacité du NAG à stopper la formation d'étoiles, nous avons cherché des traces de leur rétroaction dans ces galaxies, comme de vents de gaz s'échappant de la galaxie hôte. Dans notre échantillon de radio-galaxies modérément puissantes, nous observons des dispersions de vitesse presque aussi importantes que dans les plus puissantes (avec une FWHM ~ 1000 km/s), mais les quantités de gaz ionisé observées y sont inférieures d'un ordre de grandeur (Mion gas ~ 10^8 - 10^9 Msun) et les gradients de vitesse sont plus faibles (Δv < 400 km/s), quand ils sont observés. Dans notre échantillon de quasars, nous devions d'abord soustraire la composante large des raies d'émission avant de pouvoir étudier leur composante étroite, celle susceptible d'être étendue spatialement. Nous détectons des régions d'émission véritablement étendue autour de quatre des six sources avec une détection en radio et autour d'une seule des cinq sans détection radio. Nous estimons qu'il y a moins de gaz ionisé dans ces sources que dans notre échantillon de radio-galaxies (avec Mion gas ~ 10^7 - 10^8 Msun) et la cinématique de ce gaz est aussi plus calme, similaire à ce qui est observé autour de certains quasars proches. Enfin, de nouvelles observations de deux radio-galaxies particulières nous ont révélé que l'une d'entre elles est entourée de quatorze galaxies-companions et qu'elle se trouve donc dans une partie sur-dense de l'Univers. Nous expliquons donc la morphologie inhabituelle du gaz ionisé présent autour de ces deux radio-galaxies par des cycles répétés d'activité du NAG, en analogie à ce qui est observé dans les amas de galaxies proches, qui sont d'excellents exemples de rétroaction du NAG dans l'Univers local. / There is growing evidence that supermassive black holes may play a crucial role for galaxy evolution, in particular during the formation of massive galaxies at high redshift (z ~ 2 - 3). Our work focuses on quantifying the effects of jets of radiogalaxies and of large bolometric luminosities of quasars on the interstellar gas in their host galaxies. To this end, we studied the kinematics of the ionized gas in 12 moderately powerful radio galaxies and 11 quasars (6 radio-loud and 5 radio-quiet) at high redshifts with rest-frame optical imaging spectroscopy obtained at the VLT with SINFONI. We searched for outflows and other signatures of feedback from the supermassive black holes in the centers of these galaxies to evaluate if the AGN may plausibly quench star formation. In our sample of moderately powerful radiogalaxies, we observe velocity dispersions nearly as large as those observed in the most powerful ones (with FWHM ~ 1000 km/s), but the quantity of ionized gas is decreased by one order of magnitude (Mion gas ~ 10^8 - 10^9 Msun) and velocity gradients tend to be less dramatic (Δv < 400 km/s), when they are observed. In our sample of quasars, we had to carefully subtract the broad spectral component of emission lines to have access to its narrow, and spatially extended, component. We detect truly extended emission line regions in 4/6 sources of our radio-loud subsample and in 1/5 source of our radio-quiet subsample. We estimate that masses of ionized gas in these sources are smaller than in our sample of high-redshift radiogalaxies (with Mion gas ~ 10^7 - 10^8 Msun) and kinematics tend to be more quiescent, akin to what is observed in local quasars. Finally, detailed observations of two outliers among our sample of high-redshift radiogalaxies revealed that one of them is closely surrounded by 14 companions galaxies, hence lying in an overdensity. We therefore interpret the presence and morphology of ionized gas around these galaxies as evidence for repeated cycles ouf AGN outbursts, akin to what can be observed in local clusters of galaxies, which are prime examples of AGN feedback in the nearby Universe.

There is growing evidence that supermassive black holes may play a crucial role for galaxy evolution, in particular during the formation of massive galaxies at high redshift (z ~ 2 - 3). Our work focuses on quantifying the effects of jets of radiogalaxies and of large bolometric luminosities of quasars on the interstellar gas in their host galaxies. To this end, we studied the kinematics of the ionized gas in 12 moderately powerful radio galaxies and 11 quasars (6 radio-loud and 5 radio-quiet) at high redshifts with rest-frame optical imaging spectroscopy obtained at the VLT with SINFONI. We searched for outflows and other signatures of feedback from the supermassive black holes in the centers of these galaxies to evaluate if the AGN may plausibly quench star formation. In our sample of moderately powerful radiogalaxies, we observe velocity dispersions nearly as large as those observed in the most powerful ones (with FWHM ~ 1000 km/s), but the quantity of ionized gas is decreased by one order of magnitude (Mion gas ~ 10^8 - 10^9 Msun) and velocity gradients tend to be less dramatic (Δv < 400 km/s), when they are observed. In our sample of quasars, we had to carefully subtract the broad spectral component of emission lines to have access to its narrow, and spatially extended, component. We detect truly extended emission line regions in 4/6 sources of our radio-loud subsample and in 1/5 source of our radio-quiet subsample. We estimate that masses of ionized gas in these sources are smaller than in our sample of high-redshift radiogalaxies (with Mion gas ~ 10^7 - 10^8 Msun) and kinematics tend to be more quiescent, akin to what is observed in local quasars. Finally, detailed observations of two outliers among our sample of high-redshift radiogalaxies revealed that one of them is closely surrounded by 14 companions galaxies, hence lying in an overdensity. We therefore interpret the presence and morphology of ionized gas around these galaxies as evidence for repeated cycles ouf AGN outbursts, akin to what can be observed in local clusters of galaxies, which are prime examples of AGN feedback in the nearby Universe.