Nowadays it is requested more investigations on alternative rearing systems that are able to improve poultry welfare and to warrant high-quality and safe meat products. This thesis work was focused on the evaluation of the oxidative stability of poultry meats, obtained with different rearing systems, diets (supplemented with bioactive compounds), and packaging conditions. The thesis work was divided into the following parts: - Evaluation of the effects of different rearing systems on the quality, fatty acid composition and oxidative stability of poultry thigh and breast meat belonging to different product categories (“rotisserie” and “cut-up” carcasses); - Evaluation of the effects of different rearing systems and packaging conditions on the shelf-life of poultry thigh meat stored at 4°C for 14 days, and the effects of feed supplementation with thymol (control diet and diet with 2 different concentration of thymol) and packaging conditions on lipid oxidation of poultry thigh meat shelf-life (stored at 4°C for 14 days). The oxidative stability of poultry meat was studied by means of the spectrophotometric determinations of peroxide value and thiobarbituric acid reactive substances. - Evaluation of anti-inflammatory effects of different flavonoids (thymol, luteolin, tangeretin, sulforaphane, polymethoxyflavones, curcumin derivates) to detect their biological activity in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophage cells in vitro, in order to study more in depth their action mechanisms. It was evaluated the cell vitality (MTT assay), nitrite concentration and protein profile. The study was focused on the identification of potential dietary bioactive compounds in order to investigate their biological activity and possible synergic effects, and to develop new suitable strategies for long-term promotion of human health, in particular against cancer. / Oggigiorno sono sempre più richiesti i lavori di ricerca sullo studio di sistemi di allevamento alternativi in grado di migliorare il benessere degli animali e di migliorare la qualità e la sicurezza delle carni. Il presente elaborato di tesi si è basato sulla valutazione dello stato ossidativo di carni avicole, provenienti da animali allevati con sistemi alternativi ed alimentati con diete integrate con composti bioattivi, e conservate in diverse tipologie di packaging. L’organizzazione della ricerca si è sviluppata nei seguenti punti: - Valutazione dell’effetto di sistemi di allevamento alternativi del pollo da carne sulla qualità, composizione degli acidi grassi e stabilità ossidativa della frazione lipidica muscolare delle carni di petto e coscia ottenute da due categorie commerciali (“Rotisserie” e “Cut-up”); - Studio della stabilità ossidativa condotta mediante prove di shelf-life su carni di coscia ottenute da polli allevati con diversi sistemi di allevamento e alimentati con tre tipi di diete (dieta di controllo e diete arricchite di timolo a due diverse concentrazioni). Queste carni sono state confezionate con diverse modalità (atmosfera ordinaria e protettiva) e conservate in condizioni di refrigerazione (2-4°C) per 14 giorni. La stabilità ossidativa è stata valutata mediante le determinazioni spettrofotometriche del numero di perossidi e delle sostanze reattive all’acido tiobarbiturico; - Valutazione dell’attività anti-infiammatoria di diversi bioflavonoidi (timolo, luteolina, tangeretina, sulforafano, polimetossiflavoni, derivati della curcumina), facendo luce sui meccanismi d’azione di quest’ultimi, su linee cellulari macrofagiche (LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells) in vitro. Sono stati valutati la vitalità cellulare (MTT assay), la determinazione indiretta dell’ossido nitrico e l’identificazione delle proteine. In particolare, il lavoro si è soffermato sull’identificazione di potenziali componenti nutraceutici, caratterizzati da una forte azione sinergica, con lo scopo di indagare sulla loro attività biologica ed i loro possibili effetti sinergici e quindi di sviluppare nuove strategie finalizzate alla prevenzione del cancro, a lungo termine.

Over the past 15 years the Italian brewing scene showed interesting changes, especially with regard to the creation of many breweries with an annual production of less than 10,000 hectoliters. The beers produced by microbreweries are very susceptible to attack by spoilage micro-organisms that cause the deterioration of beer quality characteristics. In addition, most of the microbreweries do not practice heat treatments of stabilization and do not carry out quality checks on the product. The high presence of beer spoilage bacteria is an economic problem for the brewing industry because it can damage the brand and it causes high costs of product retrieval. This thesis project was aimed to study the management of the production process in the Italian microbreweries within a production less than 10,000 hl. In particular, the annual production, type of plant, yeast management, process management, cleaning and sanitizing of a representative sample of microbreweries were investigated. Furthermore was made a collection of samples in order to identify, with simple methods, what are spoilage bacteria more present in the Italian craft beers. 21% of the beers analysed were positive at the presence of lactic acid bacteria. These analytical data show the importance of understanding what are the weak points of the production process that cause the development of spoilage bacteria. Finally, the thesis examined the actual production of two microbreweries in order to understand the process management that can promote the growth of spoilage bacteria in beer and production plant. The analysis of the data for the two case studies was helpful to understand what are the critical points where the microorganisms are most frequently in contact with the product. The hygiene practices are crucial to ensure the quality of the finished product, especially in the case of non-pasteurized beer.

The consumer demand for natural, minimally processed, fresh like and functional food has lead to an increasing interest in emerging technologies. The aim of this PhD project was to study three innovative food processing technologies currently used in the food sector. Ultrasound-assisted freezing, vacuum impregnation and pulsed electric field have been investigated through laboratory scale systems and semi-industrial pilot plants. Furthermore, analytical and sensory techniques have been developed to evaluate the quality of food and vegetable matrix obtained by traditional and emerging processes. Ultrasound was found to be a valuable technique to improve the freezing process of potatoes, anticipating the beginning of the nucleation process, mainly when applied during the supercooling phase. A study of the effects of pulsed electric fields on phenol and enzymatic profile of melon juice has been realized and the statistical treatment of data was carried out through a response surface method. Next, flavour enrichment of apple sticks has been realized applying different techniques, as atmospheric, vacuum, ultrasound technologies and their combinations. The second section of the thesis deals with the development of analytical methods for the discrimination and quantification of phenol compounds in vegetable matrix, as chestnut bark extracts and olive mill waste water. The management of waste disposal in mill sector has been approached with the aim of reducing the amount of waste, and at the same time recovering valuable by-products, to be used in different industrial sectors. Finally, the sensory analysis of boiled potatoes has been carried out through the development of a quantitative descriptive procedure for the study of Italian and Mexican potato varieties. An update on flavour development in fresh and cooked potatoes has been realized and a sensory glossary, including general and specific definitions related to organic products, used in the European project Ecropolis, has been drafted.

Lo scopo di questo lavoro di tesi è la caratterizzazione dei prodotti di ossidazione di diversi fenoli idrofili contenuti nell’olio vergine d’oliva come idrossitirosolo, tirosolo e la forma dialdeidica dell’acido decarbossimetil elenolico legato all’idrossitirosolo, e la loro identificazione nel prodotto durante la conservazione. L’obiettivo della ricerca è trovare degli indici analitici che possono essere usati sia come marker di “freschezza” dell’olio vergine di oliva sia nella valutazione della “shelf life” del prodotto stesso. Due sistemi di ossidazione sono stati usati per ossidare le molecole sopracitate: ossidazione enzimatica e ossidazione di Fenton. I prodotti di ossidazione sono stati identificati come chinoni, dimeri e acidi. / The aim of this research is the characterization of the oxidation products of several hydrophilic phenols of virgin olive oil (VOO), such as hydroxytyrosol (3,4-DHPEA), tyrosol (p-HPEA) and dialdehydic form of decarboxymethyl elenolic acid linked to 3,4-DHPEA (3,4-DHPEA-EDA) and, their identification in the product during storage. This work is aimed at finding analytical indicators that can be used both as molecular markers of VOO “freshness” and for the evaluation of the shelf life of the product itself. Two oxidation systems were examined for the oxidation of p-HPEA, 3,4-DHPEA and 3,4-DHPEA-EDA: enzymatic oxidation and Fenton oxidation. Reaction products were identified as quinones, dimers, and acids.

The macroscopic properties of oily food dispersions, such as rheology, mechanical strength, sensory attributes (e.g. mouth feel, texture and even flavour release) and as well as engineering properties are strongly determined by their microstructure, that is considered a key parameter in the understanding of the foods behaviour . In particular the rheological properties of these matrices are largely influenced by their processing techniques, particle size distribution and composition of ingredients. During chocolate manufacturing, mixtures of sugar, cocoa and fat are heated, cooled, pressurized and refined. These steps not only affect particle size reduction, but also break agglomerates and distribute lipid and lecithin-coated particles through the continuous phase, this considerably modify the microstructure of final chocolate. The interactions between the suspended particles and the continuous phase provide information about the existing network and consequently can be associated to the properties and characteristics of the final dispersions. Moreover since the macroscopic properties of food materials, are strongly determined by their microstructure, the evaluation and study of the microstructural characteristics, can be very important for a through understanding of the food matrices characteristics and to get detailed information on their complexity. The aim of this study was investigate the influence of formulation and each process step on the microstructural properties of: chocolate type model systems, dark milk and white chocolate types, and cocoa creams. At the same time the relationships between microstructural changes and the resulting physico-chemical properties of: chocolate type dispersions model systems dark milk and white chocolate were investigated. / Le proprietà macroscopiche di dispersioni alimentari a base oleosa tra cui quelle reologiche, meccaniche e sensoriali (consistenza, texture, palatabilità, viscosità, stabilità fisica, ecc.) sono fortemente influenzate dalla loro microstruttura che è considerata un parametro chiave nella comprensione del “comportamento macroscopico” degli alimenti. In particolar modo le proprietà reologiche di tali matrici alimentari sono direttamente influenzate sia dalla formulazione che dal processo di produzione. Durante la produzione di cioccolato e/o surrogati a base di cacao, miscele di zucchero, cacao e grassi vengono riscaldate, raffreddate, pressurizzate e raffinate (Beckett 2000). Questi operazioni tecnologiche la contribuiscono a ridurre la dimensione delle particelle, a rompere gli agglomerati e a distribuire grassi e lecitina attorno alle singole particelle, modificandone la loro microstruttura . Poiché le proprietà macroscopiche di tali matrici alimentari sono fortemente determinate dalla loro microstruttura, la valutazione delle caratteristiche microstrutturali risulta essere molto importante al fine di studiare e ottenere dettagliate informazioni sulla loro complessità. Il presente studio si è proposto pertanto di valutare, mediante tecniche dirette di microscopia ed indirette di laser light diffraction, l’influenza delle diverse formulazioni e di ogni singola fase del processo produttivo sulle proprietà microstrutturali di: sistemi modello a base oleosa, cioccolato fondente, al latte e bianco e surrogati a base di cacao. Parallelamente sono state investigate le relazioni esistenti tra le caratteristiche micro strutturali delle suddette matrici e le loro proprietà reologiche e chimico-fisiche.

Food suppliers currently measure apple quality considering basic pomological descriptors. Sensory analysis is expensive, does not permit to analyse many samples, and cannot be implemented for measuring quality properties in real time. However, sensory analysis is the best way to precisely describe food eating quality, since it is able to define, measure, and explain what is really perceivable by human senses and using a language that closely reflects the consumers’ perception. On the basis of such observations, we developed a detailed protocol for apple sensory profiling by descriptive sensory analysis and instrumental measurements. The collected sensory data were validated by applying rigorous scientific criteria for sensory analysis. The method was then applied for studying sensory properties of apples and their changes in relation to different pre- and post-harvest factors affecting fruit quality, and demonstrated to be able to discriminate fruit varieties and to highlight differences in terms of sensory properties. The instrumental measurements confirmed such results. Moreover, the correlation between sensory and instrumental data was studied, and a new effective approach was defined for the reliable prediction of sensory properties by instrumental characterisation. It is therefore possible to propose the application of this sensory-instrumental tool to all the stakeholders involved in apple production and marketing, to have a reliable description of apple fruit quality.

Milk and dairy products are important source of bioactive compounds useful to satisfy the nutritional and physiological needs of any newborns of mammalian species and useful to guarantee adequate growth and development of infants as well as provide a complete nourishment of adults. Physico-chemical, nutritional and organoleptic properties of the main constituents and the “minor” components have a crucial role in the quality of milk and milk products. Although in the past decades dietary milk fat was often regarded as harmful for the human health, recent researches suggest that milk contains specific fatty acids with nutritional and physiological health benefits. For these reasons, a major attention is given to the quantity and quality of total fat intake. In the recent years, as a result of the new concept of multifunctional agriculture and the changing behaviours about diet, consumer demands in favor of high-quality, security and safety dairy products are increased. Moreover, milk proteins and milk-derived bioactive peptides are recognized to have a high nutritive value, several health-promoting functional activities and excellent technological properties. Accordingly, growing interest in the development of functional dairy products and preparation of infant formulae for babies who cannot be breast-fed, has been give in order to meet the specific consumer’s requests. This manuscript presents the main results obtained during my PhD research aimed to evaluate the main bioactive lipids and proteins in milk and dairy products using innovative analytical techniques. The experimental section of this manuscript is divided in two sections where are reported the main results obtained during my research activities on dairy products and human milks in order to characterize their bioactive compounds for functional food applications.

L'opinione pubblica percepisce fortemente il rischio derivante da sostanze chimiche sintetiche, ma ignora spesso quello derivante dalla presenza di sostanze tossiche naturali. Tra queste sostanze vengono classificate le micotossine; prodotti del metabolismo secondario di alcuni funghi. La maggior parte degli alimenti di origine vegetale e in particolare i cereali, possono andare incontro a contaminazione da parte di questi funghi, produttori di micotossine, in qualunque stadio. In particolare nel frumento le micotossine che si riscontrano più frequentemente sono l'ocratossina A (OTA) e il deossinivalenolo (DON), mentre nel mais, si riscontrano le Aflatossine e le fumonisine. Queste micotossine hanno effetti epatotossici, nefrotossici, mutageni e cancerogeni, è necessario perciò, un continuo monitoraggio della materia prima (frumento e mais), ma anche dei prodotti destinati all'alimentazione umana a base di questi cereali. / People experience deeply, the risk of synthetics chemicals substances, but often don't know the risk from naturals toxics substances. Between these substances, they are mycotoxins; fungi secondary metabolism's products. Most of vegetable food, as cereals, can suffer a mycotoxins contamination, for effect of these fungi, during any step of alimentary chain. In particular, in wheat , the mycotoxins more frequents are ochratoxin A end deossinivalenol, while in the maize can find aflatoxins and fumonisins. These mycotoxins can have hepatotoxics, nefrotoxics, mutagens and cancerogens effects. This study has monitored contamination's levels of raw material (wheat and maize), but also of foodstuff containing cereals.

Il formaggio sta dimostrando possedere, oltre alle caratteristiche nutrizionali classiche, degli aspetti nutrizionali innovati derivanti dalle proprietà di peptidi bioattivi contenuti nella frazione proteica caseinica del formaggio e rilasciati in seguito a proteolisi, ed ancora dalle proprietà di acidi grassi insaturi, quale l’acido linoleico coniugato. L’obiettivo di tale studio di dottorato è stato indagare su questi aspetti nutrizionali innovativi in formaggi tipici italiani quali Grana Padano e TrentinGrana, che pur essendo due formaggi molto simili tra loro, differiscono per l’uso della molecola antibatterica lisozima solo per la produzione del Grana Padano. Simulazioni in vitro della digestione gastrointestinale, nei campioni dei due formaggi a diversi tempi di stagionatura, ha dimostrato che esiste una relazione positiva tra tempo di stagionatura e digeribilità del calcio nel Grana Padano ,quando vengono considerati nella correlazione i risultati dei campioni con stagionatura superiore ai 24 mesi. A tempi di stagionatura inferiori a 24 mesi, i risultati di digeribilità del calcio del Grana Padano sono dispersi come appare nei campioni di TrentinGrana analizzati. Inoltre l’analisi RP-HPLC della distribuzione molecolare degli oligopeptidi dei campioni dei due formaggi, dimostra che la frazione peptidica coinvolta nel legame del calcio e quindi nel suo assorbimento, è quella compresa tra 1000 e 1500 D, e che l’analisi Seldi ha rilevato essere quella dei peptidi attivi fosfocaseinici. Inoltre differenze tra i due formaggi con e senza lisozima, appaiono solo per campioni tra 15 e 20 mesi di stagionatura, in cui campioni di formaggio senza lisozima appaiono più idrolizzati di quelli che lo contengono. Quindi dai risultati ottenuti appare che le differenze del profilo peptidico apportate dal lisozima non modificano le proprietà dei fosfopeptidi di assorbimento del calcio, forse influenzate da altri fattori che intervengono nella produzione del formaggio. L’attività ACE-inibitoria di abbassamento della pressione arteriosa esercitata da peptidi bioattivi è stata testata nei due formaggi, dimostrando che né il tempo di stagionatura e il grado di proteolisi, né il lisozima sono correlati all’attività ACE-inibitoria. Ed infine per l’importante ruolo che ha il minerale calcio nella dieta, indici di digeribilità del minerale in diversi alimenti sono stati considerati, in modo da poter formulare in maniera corretta diete alimentari coprendo il fabbisogno giornaliero con l’adeguato apporto energetico. I formaggi hanno dimostrato possedere indici di digeribilità del calcio superiori ad altri alimenti vegetali o a base di soia. In particolare il valore di digeribilità del Calcio del Grana Padano calcolato in vitro ha confermato il valore ottenuto in vivo , pari a 80%. / This study aimed to investigate about the not common known nutritional aspects of cheeses, which derive from their chemical components. In fact, in addition to the supply of macronutrient, cheeses are gaining interest as a source of bioactive peptides, of conjugated linoleic acid or for the new insight in the metabolic role of calcium. In vitro simulation of human gastrointestinal digestion revealed that cheeses have an higher digestibility of calcium than other foods, because of their casein-derived bioactive phosphopetides (CPPs) content has the ability to carry calcium minerals and avoid calcium precipitation, making it available for intestinal absorption. The in vitro calcium digestibility was calculated for different foods- cheeses, soya based foods and vegetables- to correct cover calcium requirements with an equilibrate energy intake. Calcium digestibility was also assessed in different ripened time Italian locally produced, semi fat, hard cheeses, Grana Padano and TrentinGrana. The main difference between them is the use or not of lysozyme during manufacturing. In Grana Padano samples, produced using lysozyme, there is a positive relationship between aging and dCa (r2 = 0.27; P<0.05) when sample > 24 months aged are considered (Grana Padano dCa results of samples less 24 months aged are quite widespread) , while in TrentinGrana, produced without the use of lysozyme, no significant correlation has been detected. RP-HPLC distribution analysis of oligopeptides molecular weight of these cheese showed that the only difference between them is that cheeses without lyzozyme, aged between 15 and 20 months, are more hydrolyzed than the same ripened time Grana Padano samples. Moreover the fraction of oligopeptides involved in calcium binding ranges between 1000 and 1500 D. SELDI analysis confirmed CPPs presence in this range. Therefore changes in cheese peptidic profiles probably caused by the use of lysozyme do not influence calcium digestibility because according to this study there is not a connection between change in peptidic profile and calcium digestibility results. The difference in calcium digestibility in Grana Padano samples aged over 24 month results should be probably ascribed also to the influence of other factors occurring during cheese manufacturing. Moreover, ACE-inhibitory activity of bioactive peptides was tested on in vitro digested Grana Padano and TrentinGrana samples with different ripening times. Correlation was not found between ACE-inhibitory activity and proteolysis level in different ripened time samples nor the lysozyme influence in releasing ACE-inhibitory bioactive peptides.

La torbidità proteica nei vini bianchi e la sostanza colorante instabile nei vini rossi sono due dei principali fenomeni di instabilità della vinificazione. I coadiuvanti tradizionali hanno un elevato impatto economico e ambientale e i vini possono essere meno accettati dai consumatori. Lo scopo del lavoro è studiare nuovi coadiuvanti sostenibili per risolvere questi problemi. Per prevenire la torbidità causata dalle proteine, i produttori trattano il vino con bentonite che è un efficace agente chiarificante, ma la sua applicazione ha mostrato inconvenienti che costano 1 miliardo $ all’anno nel mondo. Un’alternativa può essere l'utilizzo di vinaccioli che sono una risorsa rinnovabile e prontamente disponibile per le cantine. Inoltre, la diffusione dell'encefalopatia spongiforme bovina ha portato a una revisione delle pratiche di produzione alimentare. Molti degli agenti chiarificanti utilizzati nella vinificazione sono di origine animale (gelatina suina, albumina d'uovo e caseina). Questi problemi hanno determinato una crescente domanda di vini ottenuti senza prodotti di origine animale. Un'alternativa può essere rappresentata dalle proteine vegetali estratte da patata e pisello. I risultati hanno mostrato le capacità chiarificanti di questi prodotti e hanno portato a identificare i migliori in base alla rimozione di proteine e polifenoli e alla valutazione sensoriale dei diversi vini trattati. / Protein turbidity in white wines and unstable coloring matter in red wines are two of the main phenomena of instability in winemaking. Traditional adjuvants involved have both high economic and environmental impact and wines can be less acceptable by consumers. The aim of this work was to investigate new and sustainable adjuvants to solve these problems. To prevent protein turbidity, winemakers add to wine bentonite that is an effective fining agent, but its application has shown drawbacks that cost $1 billion worldwide per year. A possible alternative can be the use of grape seeds that are a renewable resource and readily available to wineries during vintage. Moreover, the spread of Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy led to a review of food production practices. Several of the fining agents used in winemaking are of animal origin (porcine gelatin, egg albumin and casein). These issues resulted in an increasing demand for wines obtained without fining agents from animal sources. An alternative can be represented by vegetal proteins extracted from potato and pea. Results shown the clarifying capacities of these agents and led to identify the best ones based on proteins and phenolics removal and sensory evaluation of different treated wines.