The impacts of invasive species on the environment, human health, and the economy continue to gain interest from public and private agencies, scientists, and the media. This study aimed to investigate the utility of SPOT 5 imagery and Artificial Neural Networks, in the identification and mapping of Acacia mearnsii within environments of varying complexity. Results showed that it is possible to identify and map Acacia mearnsii using SPOT 5 imagery, depending on the classification algorithm used. It was established that the neural network algorithms performed with greater success when compared to the performance of traditional classifiers, confirming other similar studies. The utility of the various classification algorithms was also investigated in terms of their applicability to environments of varying complexity. The neural networks once again, proved to be more successful and performed well in both the complex and relatively simple environments, indicating the robustness of the neural network algorithm. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2009.

Acacia mearnsii (black wattle) is one of the few tree crops of which both timber and bark are utilised, with branches sometimes being collected for fuel wood. There is a great potential for nutrient loss from plantations with intense harvesting practices. Allometric relationships were developed to estimate above-ground biomass across four ages and three site qualities of A. meamsii stands. The three sites were based on high, medium and low site quality classes of productivity. Differences in biomass and the distribution of biomass between the stem, bark, live branches, dead branches and foliage components are described in relation to site and age. Relationships between biomass and light interception and plant area index are investigated and show some merit. Nutrient concentrations were used with the above-ground biomass data to estimate quantities of nutrients held in the various biomass components in each of the stands. Nutrient distributions in the above-ground biomass (AGB) were examined and compared to other studies. Foliar phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) concentrations were shown to be sub optimal, agreeing with results and recommendations of South African fertilisation stupies. Some concentration differences were observed between site and age classes for certain nutrients, although these differences may have been due to seasonal effects. Biomass and nutrient quantities were adjusted to yield a wood production of 100 t ha01 and compared with adjusted calculations for similar studies on other plantation crops. Total nutrients contained in the AGB of the adjusted calculations were 540.8 kg ha01 nitrogen (N), 20.4 kg ha-I P, 200.6 kg ha01 K, 241 kg ha-I calcium (Ca), 55.7 kg ha-I magnesium (Mg), with a half to two thirds of the nutrients held in the stem and bark alone. Nutrients losses vary with harvesting intensity as bark and branches may be harvested with the stem wood. Levels of nutrient removal with harvesting intensity are discussed with reference to estimated losses and gains from natural processes and management practices. An incomplete nutrient budget calculation indicated that P, K, Ca and Mg might potentially be removed in quantities greater than replaced by natural processes under stem and bark harvesting. The budget calculations lack processes such as leaching and N-fixation. It is highly probable that these processes, once quantified, may yield more negative budget results, especially for the base cations K, Ca and Mg. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu- Natal, Durban, 2005.

In South Africa, invasive black wattle trees (Acacia mearnsii D. Wild) are a major threat to ecosystem functionality causing widespread social, economic and environmental degradation. It is important that environmental managers are provided with rapid, regular and accurate information on the location of invasive black wattle trees to coordinate removal efforts. This study investigated the potential of an automated image classification algorithm to accurately identify black wattle (A. mearnsii De Wild.) trees using imaging spectroscopy. Hyperspectral data acquired by the EO-1 Hyperion sensor was used to identify black wattle trees in two study areas near Greytown, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Image classifications were performed by the classification algorithm to identify black wattle trees using general and age specific spectral signatures (three to five years, seven to nine years, eleven to thirteen years). Results showed that using the general spectral signature an overall accuracy of 86.25% (user’s accuracy: 72.50%) and 84.50% (user’s accuracy: 69%) was achieved for study area one and study area two respectively. Using age specific spectral signatures, black wattle trees between three to five years of age were mapped with an overall accuracy of 62% (user’s accuracy: 24%) and 74.50% (user’s accuracy: 49%) for study area one and study area two respectively. The low user’s accuracies for the age specific classifications could be attributed to the use of relatively low resolution satellite imagery and not the efficacy of the classification algorithm. It was concluded that the classification algorithm could be used to identify black wattle trees using imaging spectroscopy with a high degree of accuracy. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Westville, 2012.

Plants that can self-fertilise should, on average, be more invasive than plants that can not self-fertilise because they can reproduce regardless of the availability of mates and pollinators. Self-fertilisation should have a strong effect on invasiveness because, to become invasive, introduced plants have to pass through bottlenecks of low plant abundance when mates and pollinators are likely to be scarce. Under these conditions, reproduction of plants that can not self-fertilise is often limited by pollen receipt. Selfing may thus contribute to invasiveness by alleviating pollen limitation Allee effects (pollen limitation caused by low abundance) especially as theoretical work indicates that ability to invade and rate of invasion are highly sensitive to fecundity of small and isolated populations and single individuals. Recently, a correlation between ability to self-fertilise and invasiveness has been observed in several invasive floras, consistent with the hypothesis that species that can self-fertilise should be more invasive. However, it has not yet been demonstrated that this relationship arises from reproductive assurance. To establish the causal basis of a correlation between a plant trait and invasiveness, a mechanism linking that trait to invasiveness must be demonstrated. For this it is necessary to show firstly that the trait actually affects performance in the introduced range and secondly that plant performance affects invasiveness. Self-fertilisation is hypothesised to increase invasiveness by enhancing reproductive performance. The first step in testing this hypothesis is therefore to show that being able to self-fertilise increases fecundity, i.e. that it provides reproductive assurance. However, progeny from self-fertilisation often suffer from inbreeding depression – they perform worse than those from cross-fertilisation – so it is also necessary to show that this cost does not outweigh the reproductive assurance benefit of selfing. So far, reproductive assurance has been assessed in only a few invasive plant species. These studies did not assess inbreeding depression and only one investigated reproductive assurance in relation to abundance, finding no relationship. In this thesis I have sought to understand the importance of self-fertilisation for reproduction of invasive plants in the introduced range through case studies. In particular, I assessed whether reproductive assurance from self-fertilization alleviates Allee effects via pollen limitation. To do this I tested whether pollen limitation and reproductive assurance were greater at low plant abundance. Further, I conducted progeny trials to assess inbreeding depression, as this cost of selfing potentially negates reproductive assurance benefits. I also conducted observations and experiments to identify the principle pollinators of my study species as reproductive assurance and its relationship to plant abundance depend on pollinator visitation, The Australian trees Acacia mearnsii and A. dealbata are highly invasive in the study region of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Through controlled pollination experiments I established that A. dealbata was self-compatible and autonomously self-fertilising, while previous studies reported A. mearnsii as self-incompatible. I identified the native honeybee Apis mellifera scutellata as the principal pollinator of A. mearnsii, A. dealbata and a co-occuring related invasive species, Acacia decurrens, in the study region. I conducted pollen supplementation experiments in two of these species, aiming to indirectly assess reproductive assurance from selfing in the self-compatible A. dealbata by comparing pollen limitation between this species and the self-incompatible A. mearnsii. In both species, I conducted pollen supplementation in single isolated trees and trees in continuous populations, to test whether pollen limitation was more severe in isolation. These pollen supplementation experiments were inconclusive with respect to pollen limitation but indicated that if there was pollen limitation in A. mearnsii, it was not related to isolation. Progeny trials in A. dealbata revealed relatively strong inbreeding depression in progeny growth and survival. This suggests that selfed progeny may not reach reproduction, so even if self-fertilisation provides reproductive assurance, it may not contribute to invasion in this species. As floral morphology of Acacia species prohibits the use of emasculation experiments to directly measure reproductive assurance, I conducted further investigations on Lilium formosanum, a large-flowered, autonomously self-pollinating invasive geophyte native to Taiwan. I identified the long tongued hawkmoth Agrius convolvuli as its primary pollinator in its introduced range in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Trials of progeny from self- and crosspollination in the field (to 31 months) and in a controlled shade-house environment (to 26 months) showed no evidence of inbreeding depression in germination, growth or survival. Flowering was assessed in the shade-house as most plants did not flower in the field. Only one of five populations showed inbreeding depression in probability of flowering in the second year of growth but none showed inbreeding depression in the third year. Inbreeding depression was thus generally undetectable in L. formosanum. I tested for reproductive assurance and pollen limitation in L. formosanum by conducting floral emasculations and pollen supplementations in multiple populations across a range of population size and isolation in three different years. These experiments demonstrated that reproductive assurance was substantial and that pollen limitation was low or absent. Contrary to expectations, reproductive assurance was not greater in smaller populations and was greater for more isolated populations in only one of three years. However, that study did not include many very small populations. To assess reproductive assurance at very low abundance, I created arrays of emasculated and intact plants within and around naturally occurring populations at two sites. Isolated plants had higher reproductive assurance than did plants placed inside the continuous population at one site, supporting the hypothesis that selfing provides reproductive assurance against pollen-limitation Allee effects. However, in these studies, generally inadequate pollinator visitation was the main reason that L. formosanum exhibited reproductive assurance through selfing. The substantial reproductive assurance and minimal inbreeding depression displayed by L. formosanum makes a compelling case for the hypothesis that self-pollination promotes invasion. Nevertheless, demographic modelling will be necessary to assess whether increased fecundity through reproductive assurance results in increased rates of population growth and spread, and hence invasion, in this species. To assess whether reproductive assurance accounts for the relationship between ability to self-fertilise and invasiveness in plants generally, the contribution of self-fertilisation to invasiveness will have to be evaluated for a larger sample of invasive and non-invasive introduced species, using the approaches taken in this thesis, followed up by demographic modelling. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2011.