O presente trabalho mostra os resultados obtidos no estudo da utilização do rejeito bruto da extração de carvão mineral como agregado miúdo na produção de blocos de concreto para pavimentação de vias públicas. Neste trabalho os blocos de concreto foram produzidos na fábrica da prefeitura de Criciúma, que está situada nas dependências do Presídio Municipal Santa Augusta. Esta fábrica proporciona uma opção de trabalho aos apenados que adquiriram o direito de cumprirem suas penas em regime semiaberto, cumprindo assim, um importante papel social na ressocialização destas pessoas, além de produzir o material de revestimento, que é aplicado nas vias públicas do município, a um custo bastante atraente. Durante a produção das amostras dos blocos de concreto com o rejeito de carvão, procurou-se ao máximo não alterar o processo desenvolvido na fábrica onde são produzidos os blocos de concreto empregados na pavimentação das vias públicas de Criciúma. Sendo assim, a única alteração imposta às amostras foi a substituição proporcional do agregado miúdo natural, areia lavada, pelo agregado de rejeito de carvão mineral, nas proporções de 25%, 50%, 75% e 100% O lote de estudo contou ainda com a produção de blocos de concreto sem adição de rejeito de carvão, que teve como função servir de base comparativa para as análises de compressão, abrasão e absorção de água. Posteriormente foi realizado um estudo para avaliar a possibilidade de geração, pelos blocos de concreto, de drenagem ácida de mina (DAM), que é a principal fonte de poluição do solo e dos corpos d’agua dos municípios pertencentes à AMREC – Associação dos Municípios da Região Carbonífera. Como resultado, aponta-se a viabilidade de utilização de rejeito de carvão nas proporções de 25% e 50% em substituição ao agregado miúdo natural (areia), criando assim, uma nova perspectiva às mineradoras de carvão da AMREC, que poderão dar um fim nobre ao rejeito de carvão, proporcionando uma produção mais limpa e sustentável, além de poderem contar com uma nova fonte de receita proporcionada pela comercialização do rejeito de carvão produzido na sua principal atividade comercial. / This document presents the results obtained in the study of using raw waste of coal extraction. In this work the concrete block for public roads paving were produced in a factory owned by Criciuma city hall, which is situated at the municipal Penitentiary Santa Augusta. During the concrete samples blocks production with the coal waste, it was tried its best in the way of not changing the process developed at the concrete blocks production site used in the paving of Criciuma´s streets. Thus, the only change that was proportionally imposed in the sample was the replacement of fine natural aggregate, washed sand, for the coal tailings aggregate in the proportions of 25%, 50%, 75% and 100%. The batch study also included the production of concrete blocks without adding coal tailing, which was to form the basis of comparative function for the compression tests, abrasion and water absorption. Afterwards, it was done a study to assess the possibility of generating, by concrete blocks, acid mine drainage (AMD), which is the main source of soil and water pollution in the municipalities belonging from AMREC - Association of Municipalities of the Coal Region. As a result, it points feasibility of using waste coal in the proportions of 25% and 50% to replace the natural aggregate (sand), thus creating a new perspective to AMREC coal mining companies, which may give a noble and to reject coal, providing a cleaner and sustainable production, besides being able to count on a new source of revenue provided by the commercialization of coal waste produced in its main commercial activity.

Magister Scientiae - MSc (Environ & Water Science) / There are growing concerns around the environmental issues related to processed water as the demand for potable water is on the increase in South Africa. Effluents discharged from various sectors such as water treatment facilities pose a constant threat to the environment and natural water resources, including rivers and groundwater due to their poor chemical and physical composition. As a result, the demand for predicting the elevated concentrations of salts in a spatial and temporal dimension is constantly growing. The effluent at the eMalahleni water reclamation plant in Mpumalanga, South Africa, is being processed through a triple reverse osmosis that improves the water quality of the mine water to potable standards. Two water quality streams emerge from this process, i.e. a potable standard and the other a brine concentrate which is stored in ponds. Brine ponds are used for inland brine disposal in the eMalahleni water reclamation plant. The large volumes and limited capacity to store brines has placed great emphasis on enhanced evaporation rates to increase the efficiency of the ponds. In order to improve the rate of brine evaporation in the pond, an understanding of the effect of brine salt content and other parameters affecting the rate of evaporation is required. This study aimed at establishing the physical and chemical behaviour of the brine from the eMalahleni plant in a controlled environment. The investigation incorporated actual brine from the eMalahleni plant as well as synthetic salts typical of the major components of the eMalahleni brine.

Os impactos ambientais provocados por determinadas atividades econômicas podem causar prejuízos em terceiros já que a ação deletéria sobre o meio prejudica e, em alguns casos, inviabiliza a existência de outras atividades. Nesse contexto, enquadra-se a mineração de carvão. Em tal atividade, o contato da água – superficial, subterrânea ou pluvial – com elementos específicos resultantes das escavações, na presença de oxigênio e de microorganismos, forma a chamada drenagem ácida de mina que, em grande parte dos casos, é despejada em cursos d’água adjacentes prejudicando outros usos da água. Assim, o presente trabalho tem por objetivo elaborar uma metodologia de planejamento da explotação do carvão mineral em bacias hidrográficas que busque a produção ótima do minério com a internalização dos custos de tratamento do efluente gerado a fim de que os parâmetros de qualidade da água, estabelecidos pela Resolução 357 do CONAMA, sejam respeitados e, desse modo, diminua a incidência de prejuízos em terceiros. Tal metodologia é pautada pela elaboração de um modelo capaz de simular, ao longo do tempo de explotação das minas, a carga de poluentes lançada nos cursos d'água de uma bacia hidrográfica. Após a coleta de dados, a implantação da metodologia se dá por diversos cenários. O primeiro deles é a análise da situação em que não há internalização dos custos ambientais. Constatou-se que os limites estabelecidos pelo CONAMA são ultrapassados. O segundo cenário caracteriza-se pela tentativa de enquadramento dos cursos d’água na classe 1, com a internalização dos custos ambientais. Dadas as condições de tratamento de efluentes, tal enquadramento não foi possível. O terceiro cenário diz respeito à tentativa de enquadramento na classe 3 dadas as mesmas condições do segundo cenário. Os resultados mostram ser possível tal enquadramento. A elevação dos custos ambientais para enquadramento na classe 1 determina o quarto cenário. Ainda como forma de enquadrar os cursos d’água da bacia na classe 1, é estabelecida uma divisão na operação das minas. Assim, no quinto cenário são consideradas apenas três minas e no sexto cenário são consideradas as demais. Além das concentrações de determinados parâmetros ao longo do tempo, também são mostrados os gráficos de produção das minas em cada cenário. Por fim, são comparados os ganhos obtidos em cada cenário e os fluxos de caixa dos cenários 1, 2 e 3 para que sirvam de subsídio para a classificação das águas da bacia segundo a Resolução 357. / The environmental impacts provoked by determined economic activities can cause financial damages to third parts since the deleterious action harms and, in some cases, makes impracticable the existence of other activities. In this context, the coal mining is situated. In such activity, the contact of superficial water, groundwater or rainwater with specific elements resultant from the drillings, in presence of oxygen and microorganisms, forms the acid mine drainage, that, to a large number of the cases, is poured into adjacent rivers harming other uses of the water. Thus, the present work aims to elaborate a methodology of the mineral coal exploitation planning in river basins that achieves the excellent production of the ore with the costs of effluent treatment internalization so that water quality parameters, established by CONAMA’s Resolution 357, are respected and there is no incidence of damages to third parts. Such methodology is based on the elaboration of a model that is capable of simulating, during the mines exploitation time, the load of pollutants launched in river basins water. After the data collection, the methodology is implemented in diverse scenarios. The first one of them is the analysis of the situation where there is no environmental costs internalization. It is evidenced that the limits established are exceeded. The next scenario is characterized by the attempt of framing water courses in class 1, with environmental costs internalization. Given the conditions of treatment of effluent, such framing was not possible. The third scenario considers the attempt of framing in class 3 given the same conditions of scene 2. The results show that the framing is possible. The rise of environmental costs to frame in class 1 determines the fourth scenario. Still as a form to fit water courses in class 1, a division in mine’s operation is established. Thus, in the fifth scenario only three mines are considered and in the sixth scenario the others are considered. In addition to the concentrations of certain parameters during the exploitation period, the graphs of mine production in each scene are also shown. Finally, the profits obtained in each scenario and the cash flows of scenes 1, 2 and 3 are compared in order to serve as subsidy to classify the river basin waters according to CONAMA’s Resolution 357.

O presente trabalho mostra os resultados obtidos no estudo da utilização do rejeito bruto da extração de carvão mineral como agregado miúdo na produção de blocos de concreto para pavimentação de vias públicas. Neste trabalho os blocos de concreto foram produzidos na fábrica da prefeitura de Criciúma, que está situada nas dependências do Presídio Municipal Santa Augusta. Esta fábrica proporciona uma opção de trabalho aos apenados que adquiriram o direito de cumprirem suas penas em regime semiaberto, cumprindo assim, um importante papel social na ressocialização destas pessoas, além de produzir o material de revestimento, que é aplicado nas vias públicas do município, a um custo bastante atraente. Durante a produção das amostras dos blocos de concreto com o rejeito de carvão, procurou-se ao máximo não alterar o processo desenvolvido na fábrica onde são produzidos os blocos de concreto empregados na pavimentação das vias públicas de Criciúma. Sendo assim, a única alteração imposta às amostras foi a substituição proporcional do agregado miúdo natural, areia lavada, pelo agregado de rejeito de carvão mineral, nas proporções de 25%, 50%, 75% e 100% O lote de estudo contou ainda com a produção de blocos de concreto sem adição de rejeito de carvão, que teve como função servir de base comparativa para as análises de compressão, abrasão e absorção de água. Posteriormente foi realizado um estudo para avaliar a possibilidade de geração, pelos blocos de concreto, de drenagem ácida de mina (DAM), que é a principal fonte de poluição do solo e dos corpos d’agua dos municípios pertencentes à AMREC – Associação dos Municípios da Região Carbonífera. Como resultado, aponta-se a viabilidade de utilização de rejeito de carvão nas proporções de 25% e 50% em substituição ao agregado miúdo natural (areia), criando assim, uma nova perspectiva às mineradoras de carvão da AMREC, que poderão dar um fim nobre ao rejeito de carvão, proporcionando uma produção mais limpa e sustentável, além de poderem contar com uma nova fonte de receita proporcionada pela comercialização do rejeito de carvão produzido na sua principal atividade comercial. / This document presents the results obtained in the study of using raw waste of coal extraction. In this work the concrete block for public roads paving were produced in a factory owned by Criciuma city hall, which is situated at the municipal Penitentiary Santa Augusta. During the concrete samples blocks production with the coal waste, it was tried its best in the way of not changing the process developed at the concrete blocks production site used in the paving of Criciuma´s streets. Thus, the only change that was proportionally imposed in the sample was the replacement of fine natural aggregate, washed sand, for the coal tailings aggregate in the proportions of 25%, 50%, 75% and 100%. The batch study also included the production of concrete blocks without adding coal tailing, which was to form the basis of comparative function for the compression tests, abrasion and water absorption. Afterwards, it was done a study to assess the possibility of generating, by concrete blocks, acid mine drainage (AMD), which is the main source of soil and water pollution in the municipalities belonging from AMREC - Association of Municipalities of the Coal Region. As a result, it points feasibility of using waste coal in the proportions of 25% and 50% to replace the natural aggregate (sand), thus creating a new perspective to AMREC coal mining companies, which may give a noble and to reject coal, providing a cleaner and sustainable production, besides being able to count on a new source of revenue provided by the commercialization of coal waste produced in its main commercial activity.

A drenagem ácida de mina (DAM) gerada no processo de mineração de carvão, na presença de minerais sulfetados, tem provocado danos ambientais significativos no ecossistema de sua abrangência. Tecnologia de tratamento ativo baseada em processos de Neutralização, Precipitação e Sedimentação tem sido empregada para atenuar a carga de poluentes no efluente, antes do seu descarte em corpos receptores. A mesma, apesar da sua eficiência vem se mostrando bastante onerosa quando aplicada durante um longo período, devido aos custos com insumos, manutenção, potencial humano e energia. Nos últimos anos, vem sendo desenvolvidos sistemas que socorrem-se da ocorrência natural de processos químicos, biológicos e físicos para purificar água de mina contaminada. Estes são designados sistemas passivos, cuja implantação e funcionamento tem se mostrado menos onerosa em relação ao sistema ativo. Capão da Roça, situado no município de Charqueadas é uma das regiões do Brasil onde ocorre contaminação de solos e rios pela DAM gerada a partir de um depósito de rejeitos. Aplicando o fluxograma recomendado por diversos autores para a seleção do sistema passivo, tomando em conta as características do efluente achou-se viável instalar um canal aberto de calcário para o tratamento da DAM do Capão da Roça em virtude de a mesma apresentar acidez maior que a alcalinidade, oxigênio dissolvido maior que 5mg/l, Fe+3 maior que 25% em relação ao Fe2+. A quantidade de efluente e a declividade do terreno da área estudada permite que se opere com vazão maior que 12m3/h no sistema passivo. De acordo com a acidez do efluente foi determinado o tempo de detenção de 1hora para o tratamento da DAM no sistema. A partir de estudos similares sobre o uso de calcário em sistemas passivos, encontrou-se a massa de 338,6 toneladas para o empreendimento funcionar em 10 anos, considerando uma dissolução de calcário de 100%, num canal com 10% de declividade, 1m de profundidade e 2, 5 metros de largura para tamponar uma solução de DAM com vazão de 1000 L.min-1 num canal de 47metros de cumprimento. De acordo com cálculos baseados num modelo empírico, ficou demonstrado que o diâmetro e área de superfície do calcário poderão diminuir ao longo do tempo, considerado a sua dissolução. / Acid mine drainage (AMD) generated in the coal mining process in the presence of sulfide minerals, have been causing significant environmental damages to the ecosystem of its coverage. Active treatment technology based on neutralization, precipitation and sedimentation processes, has been used to alleviate the load of pollutants in the effluent prior to discharges into receiving bodies. Despite their efficiency has proved quite costly when applied over a long period due to input costs, maintenance, manpower and energy. In recent years project defined 'passive treatment' has been developed as the improvement of water quality using only naturally occurring chemical, biological and physical processes, hence, the deployment and operation have been less costly compared to the active systems. Capão da Roça, located in the municipality of Charqueadas is one of the regions of Brazil where occurs contamination of soils and rivers by AMD generated from a waste dump. Using the flowchart recommended by several authors for selecting the passive system, taking into account the wastewater characteristics, was found to be feasible to install an open limestone channel for the treatment of AMD because it has higher acidity than alkalinity, dissolved oxygen greater than 5mg / l, Fe3+ greater than 25 % in relation to Fe2+. The amount of effluent and the slope of the study area terrain allows to operate with a flow rate greater than 12m3/ h in the passive system. According to the acidity of the effluent was determined retention time of 1 hour for the treatment of the AMD system. From similar studies on the use of limestone in passive systems, was found the mass of 338.6 tons for the enterprise operating over 10 years, assuming a 100% limestone dissolution channel with a 10% slope, 1 meter deep and 2,5 meters wide to buffer an AMD solution with a flow rate of 1000 L.min-1 in channel with 47 meters of length. According to the calculations based on empirical model, it was shown that the diameter and the surface area of limestone may decline over time, considering its dissolution.

Os impactos ambientais provocados por determinadas atividades econômicas podem causar prejuízos em terceiros já que a ação deletéria sobre o meio prejudica e, em alguns casos, inviabiliza a existência de outras atividades. Nesse contexto, enquadra-se a mineração de carvão. Em tal atividade, o contato da água – superficial, subterrânea ou pluvial – com elementos específicos resultantes das escavações, na presença de oxigênio e de microorganismos, forma a chamada drenagem ácida de mina que, em grande parte dos casos, é despejada em cursos d’água adjacentes prejudicando outros usos da água. Assim, o presente trabalho tem por objetivo elaborar uma metodologia de planejamento da explotação do carvão mineral em bacias hidrográficas que busque a produção ótima do minério com a internalização dos custos de tratamento do efluente gerado a fim de que os parâmetros de qualidade da água, estabelecidos pela Resolução 357 do CONAMA, sejam respeitados e, desse modo, diminua a incidência de prejuízos em terceiros. Tal metodologia é pautada pela elaboração de um modelo capaz de simular, ao longo do tempo de explotação das minas, a carga de poluentes lançada nos cursos d'água de uma bacia hidrográfica. Após a coleta de dados, a implantação da metodologia se dá por diversos cenários. O primeiro deles é a análise da situação em que não há internalização dos custos ambientais. Constatou-se que os limites estabelecidos pelo CONAMA são ultrapassados. O segundo cenário caracteriza-se pela tentativa de enquadramento dos cursos d’água na classe 1, com a internalização dos custos ambientais. Dadas as condições de tratamento de efluentes, tal enquadramento não foi possível. O terceiro cenário diz respeito à tentativa de enquadramento na classe 3 dadas as mesmas condições do segundo cenário. Os resultados mostram ser possível tal enquadramento. A elevação dos custos ambientais para enquadramento na classe 1 determina o quarto cenário. Ainda como forma de enquadrar os cursos d’água da bacia na classe 1, é estabelecida uma divisão na operação das minas. Assim, no quinto cenário são consideradas apenas três minas e no sexto cenário são consideradas as demais. Além das concentrações de determinados parâmetros ao longo do tempo, também são mostrados os gráficos de produção das minas em cada cenário. Por fim, são comparados os ganhos obtidos em cada cenário e os fluxos de caixa dos cenários 1, 2 e 3 para que sirvam de subsídio para a classificação das águas da bacia segundo a Resolução 357. / The environmental impacts provoked by determined economic activities can cause financial damages to third parts since the deleterious action harms and, in some cases, makes impracticable the existence of other activities. In this context, the coal mining is situated. In such activity, the contact of superficial water, groundwater or rainwater with specific elements resultant from the drillings, in presence of oxygen and microorganisms, forms the acid mine drainage, that, to a large number of the cases, is poured into adjacent rivers harming other uses of the water. Thus, the present work aims to elaborate a methodology of the mineral coal exploitation planning in river basins that achieves the excellent production of the ore with the costs of effluent treatment internalization so that water quality parameters, established by CONAMA’s Resolution 357, are respected and there is no incidence of damages to third parts. Such methodology is based on the elaboration of a model that is capable of simulating, during the mines exploitation time, the load of pollutants launched in river basins water. After the data collection, the methodology is implemented in diverse scenarios. The first one of them is the analysis of the situation where there is no environmental costs internalization. It is evidenced that the limits established are exceeded. The next scenario is characterized by the attempt of framing water courses in class 1, with environmental costs internalization. Given the conditions of treatment of effluent, such framing was not possible. The third scenario considers the attempt of framing in class 3 given the same conditions of scene 2. The results show that the framing is possible. The rise of environmental costs to frame in class 1 determines the fourth scenario. Still as a form to fit water courses in class 1, a division in mine’s operation is established. Thus, in the fifth scenario only three mines are considered and in the sixth scenario the others are considered. In addition to the concentrations of certain parameters during the exploitation period, the graphs of mine production in each scene are also shown. Finally, the profits obtained in each scenario and the cash flows of scenes 1, 2 and 3 are compared in order to serve as subsidy to classify the river basin waters according to CONAMA’s Resolution 357.

O principal impacto causado pela atividade de mineração de carvão é a poluição hídrica proveniente da drenagem ácida de minas (DAM), que pode ter efeitos toxicológicos nos ecossistemas aquáticos, como mortalidade, disfunções no crescimento, menores taxas de reprodução, deformidades e lesões. A DAM é formada através da oxidação de minerais de sulfeto, principalmente pirita (FeS2) e caracteriza-se por uma solução de pH ácido e metais dissolvidos (Fe, Al e Mn). Novas metodologias para o tratamento de efluentes contaminados com metais estão sendo estudadas e a eletrodiálise (ED) surge como uma destas tecnologias que tem se mostrado eficaz para a recuperação de água e concentração de eletrólitos. É considerada uma tecnologia atrativa aos mais diversos segmentos, uma vez que apresenta muitas vantagens sobre os processos tradicionais, tais como: não exige mudanças de fases; funciona de forma contínua; não necessita da adição de reagentes e não gera resíduos poluentes ao ambiente. A ED é uma técnica de separação por membranas, no qual espécies iônicas em solução são transportadas através de membranas de troca-iônica por influência da aplicação de um campo elétrico que permite a separação de ânions e cátions metálicos com a vantagem de remover os metais contaminantes e simultaneamente recuperar água e outros compostos de interesse industrial, como o ácido sulfúrico. No entanto, para a aplicação da ED alguns parâmetros devem ser estudados, buscando as melhores condições de uso. O parâmetro mais importante a ser analisado é o transporte dos íons através das membranas, avaliado no presente estudo através da cronopotenciometria e da obtenção das curvas de corrente-potencial (CVCs). Curvas cronopotenciométricas foram obtidas a partir de soluções sintéticas que representavam a composição de uma DAM a fim de se avaliar a passagem de ânions sulfato através de uma membrana aniônica (HDX 200), e o transporte de cátions metálicos, tais como Na+ e Fe3+, através de uma membrana catiônica (HDX 100). E as CVCs foram obtidas a partir das próprias DAMs também para a avaliação do transporte de íons e determinação de densidade de corrente limite a ser empregada na ED. Os resultados mostraram que os cátions avaliados desempenharam um papel significativo para o equilíbrio químico que leva à formação de diferentes espécies de complexos de cargas e mobilidade distintas. Diagramas de especiação em conjunto com os cronopotenciogramas permitiram a identificação de espécies complexas que conduzem a um transporte lento de íons através das membranas. A ED mostrou-se eficaz para a recuperação de água, removendo mais de 97,00 % dos contaminantes, e para a recuperação de ácido sulfúrico a partir da DAM, sendo obtidos percentuais de concentração de sulfatos superiores a 38,55 % e incrementos na acidez de até 236,88 %. / The main impact caused by coal mining activity is water pollution from acid mine drainage (AMD), that can have serious toxicological effects on aquatic ecosystems, such as mortality, growth disorders, lower rates reproduction, deformities and injuries. The AMD is formed by the oxidation of sulfide minerals, mainly pyrite (FeS2) and is characterized by a acid pH and dissolved metals (Fe, Al and Mn). New approaches for the wastewater contaminated with metals treatment are being studied and electrodialysis (ED) emerges as a new technology and has proven effective for the recovery of water and electrolyte concentration. The ED is considered an attractive technology to some segments since it presents several advantages on the traditional processes, such as: does not require phase changes; runs continuously, does not need reagents addition and does not generate waste polluting environment. Electrodialysis is a membrane separation technique in which ionic species in solution are transported, through ion-exchange membranes, under the influence of an electric field which allows anions and metallic cations separation, possessing the advantages of removing contaminant metals and simultaneously recovering water and other compounds of industrial interest, such as sulfuric acid. However, to implement the ED some parameters should be studied seeking the best conditions. The most important parameter to be studied is the ions transport across membranes, assessed in this study by chronopotentiometry and obtaining the current-voltage curves (CVCs). Chronopotentiometry curve were obtained from synthetic solutions representing the AMD composition in order to assess the passage of anions sulfate through a membrane anion (HDX 200), and transport of metallic cations such as Na+ and Fe3+, through a cation membrane (HDX 100). The CVCs were obtained from raw AMD also to evaluate the ions transport and determination of threshold current density to be employed in ED. The results showed that the cations evaluated played a significant role in the chemical balance which leads to the formation of different species of complexes of different fillers and mobility. Speciation diagrams with chronopotentiograms allowed the identification of complex species that lead to a slow ions transport across membranes. The ED was effective for water recovery removing more than 97.00 % of contaminants and to sulfuric acid recovery from the AMD, where has been obtained percentage of sulfate concentration above 38.55 % and an increase in acidity up to 236.88 %.

D.Phil. (Zoology) / South Africa is a major gold-producing country with the 43 larger mines processing approximately 120 x 106 ton of milled and processed ore and about 30 x I06 ton of mined waste rock. Pollution of both surface and ground water, which can be attributed to the influences of gold-mining, are well known. Acid mine drainage, characterized by a low pH and high concentrations of dissolved metals, and seepage, from active and disused mine-tailings, are two of the main environmental problems associated with gold mining operations in South Africa. A growing concern for the environment and a stricter approach to water pollution by government agencies have made it necessary to investigate the type of effects which the gold mining industry is responsible for, and to develop action to reduce these impacts. The present study focused on procedures to access the effect of gold-mining effluent on the natural surface environment. The study is divided into three separate identities. The mine represented as Ccse study Mine One is considered to be a major contributor of salt loads to the natural stream on the property of the mine. This stream confluences with the Klip River outside the mined area. This mine has only one discharge point of underground mine service water, and is considered to be the main point source of pollution for the mine. As the mine makes use of an open water circuit, the quality and quantity of effluent have a direct effect on the downstream users. It appears that one of the main water quality problems of this open water circuit is the creation of surface water with a very low pH. Part of the problem is the geology of the area which consists of shales, which has a natural low buffering capacity. Because of the low pH the wetlands are not very effective. Metal concentration changes are possibly the direct result of the low pH of the both the water column and sediment. Improving the pH of the surface water can leads to reduced metal concentrations in the water, with possible increased concentrations in the sediment and wetland vegetation. Case Study Mine Two was conducted at a gold mine in the Far West Rand Mine region. The mine can be classified as having a closed water circuit, in that only excess water is discharged. The volume of water discharged is dependent on a number of factors, such as rainfall, wash-down service water and changing demands in sewage treatment systems. The advantage in this type of circuit is that water which has accidentally been spilled can be retained in one of the boundary dams, without the possibility of endangering the downstream users. From the assessment it appears that although the mining activities have influenced the water within the mining area this impact is only confirmed to certain areas. Biotic environmental conditions at certain sites resemble the conditions of the two control sites while other, notably those in contact with processing plants (e.g. metallurgical plant), are far more deteriorated. pH does not seem to be a problem at this specific mine. The main reasons are that the underlying geology of the mine is dolomitic in nature, while the sulphate concentration in the ore appears to be lower than those' found at the Witwatersrand mines. Case study Mine Three is situated in the Klerksdorp gold-mining region. The mine has a complex water circuit as a percentage of the service water is being reused or/and discharged via effluent streams into the Vaal River. Metal concentrations in the sediment core samples indicate a large variability between seasons, sites and depth. Sites in close proximity of slimes dams have high iron and manganese concentrations, whilst those in contact with effluent water from metallurgical plants have relatively high nickel, copper and in concentrations. This can be related to the type of processing material used in the gold-mining process.

Fundamental processes underpinning the biotransformation of coal by fungal biocatalysts have been intensively investigated, however, limited large-scale industrial applications using such systems have been reported. The un-anticipated sporadic growth of Cynodon dactylon on the surface of un-rehabilitated discard coal dumps has been noted and this was found to be coupled with the breakdown of coal into a humic soil-like material in the top 1.5 metres of the dumps. Extensive fungal growth was observed to be associated with the Cynodon dactylon root system and examination of plant roots indicated the presence of mycorrhizal fungi. Analysis of the Cynodon dactylon plant roots around which coal biotransformation was occurring confirmed the presence of arbuscular mycorrhizal colonisation with the species Glomus clarum, Paraglomus occultum, Gigaspora gigantea and Glomus mosseae identified to be associated with the plants. Further molecular characterisation of non-mycorrhizal rhizospheric fungi showed the presence of fungal species with coal-degrading capabilities that most likely played a role in the coal biotransformation observed. The discard coal dump environment was simulated in pot and column studies and coal biotransformation was reproduced, with this process enhanced by the addition of mycorrhizal and non-mycorrhizal rhizospheric fungal inocula to the environment. Mycorrhizal and non-mycorrhizal species in the inoculum were re-isolated from the simulated environment fulfilling a number of Koch’s postulates and indicating a causal role in the biotransformation of coal. An inversion of conventional mycorrhizal colonisation was demonstrated in this system with reduction in extraradicular presence and an increase in intracellular colonisation compared to soil controls. A descriptive model was formulated suggesting a two-part fungal system involving organic carbon and nutrient exchange between the plant, mycorrhizal fungi and non-mycorrhizal coal-degrading rhizospheric fungi ultimately resulting in the biotransformation of coal. The biotransformation observed was comparable to reports of “rock-eating fungi”. Results suggest that the biological degradation of coal in situ with the production of a soil-like substrate could provide a feasible method of discard coal dump rehabilitation as well as provide a humic-rich substrate that can be utilised in further industrial applications.

Waste rock piles from coal mining of tertiary bituminous coal in Longyearbyen, Svalbard, show sulfide oxidation and subsequent acid mine drainage (AMD) production. The aim was to establish deeper understanding of AMD prediction based on Mineralogy and Geochemistry of coal and AMD samples. Mineralogical investigation of both coal and rock samples was performed with Automated SEM (ZEISS-Sigma VP300-Mineralogic System) as well as RAMAN. ICP-MS analysis was performed on solid and water samples. The pH from in situ measurements of AMD between 2,5-7,0. Eh varied from 222-569 mV (corresponding pe value of 3,7-9,6). This study showed that time of AMD in an oxidative environment was a key factor in iron concentration and iron speciation the AMD. This could not however be concluded in terms of age of mine site but rather the site-specific setting. The main minerals found in coal samples were pyrite (FeS2), siderite (FeCO3), calcite (CaCO3) and apatite (Ca5(PO4)3). Pyrites were identified with framboidal and euhedral textures and were found inside the maceral matter and in over- and underlying rocks respectively. SEM analysis of coal samples indicated that the modes of mineral formation was changing over the course of the Longyear seam. This study found that framboidal or euhedral textures of pyrite had different impacts in the AMD production. Framboidal pyrite was found to generate a greater amount of acidity than euhedral pyrites due to larger specific surface area and could therefore pose larger problems in AMD management.