Aflatoxins are secondary metabolites produced by members of the fungal genus Aspergillus. Immunosuppressive and carcinogenic activities of these toxins negatively impact human health especially in developing countries. Severity of contamination is influenced by both fungal community structure and the environment to which the crop is exposed either prior to or after harvest. In 2004, a severe episode of lethal human aflatoxicosis occurred in the Eastern Province of Kenya. Analysis of fungal community structure revealed that this event was caused by a previously unknown fungal lineage closely resembling the S strain morphotype of Aspergillus flavus. Fungal communities associated with maize produced in affected regions of Kenya were invariably dominated by the new fungal lineage and its incidence was strongly correlated with maize aflatoxin content. Analyses of fungal communities of maize grown in adjacent Kenyan provinces showed that incidences of the new lineage are limited outside the Eastern Province where the aflatoxicoses outbreaks occurred. Multi-locus phylogenetic analyses suggest the newly identified Kenyan lineage is closely related to the B and G aflatoxin producing species A. minisclerotigenes, and more distantly related to both the A. flavus S strain and an unnamed taxon with similar morphology endemic in West Africa (strain SBG). Sequence analyses of the cypA aflatoxin biosynthesis gene identified a previously unknown 2.2 kb deletion unique to the Kenyan lineage and coherent with its phylogenetic placement. A polyphasic approach was used to study aflatoxin-producing fungal communities, with emphasis on occurrence of fungi with S strain morphology, in Sub-Saharan Africa. Four phylogenetically distinct groups of fungi with S strain morphology were identified with restrictions to West Africa (strain SBG) or Central and East Africa (A. flavus S strain, A. minisclerotigenes, the new lineage). Aflatoxin production in synthetic media was a poor predictor of aflatoxin production in viable maize grain. An in vitro assay was developed to predict the aflatoxin-producing potential of fungal isolates in maize. This screen was used to identify atoxigenic isolates of A. flavus with potential value for biological control within highly toxic Aspergillus communities associated with maize production in Kenya. These atoxigenic isolates have potential value for mitigating aflatoxin contamination in Kenya.

Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico / In the first part of the thesis, the spontaneous occurrence of an outbreak of chronic aflatoxicosis is reported in dairy calves. Forty 4-month-old male Holstein calves of approximately 100kg were fed a ration constituted by alfalfa hay, broken corn and milk substitute. Six calves (15%) died after presenting a disease characterized by general unthriftiness, diarrhea, rough hair coats, abdominal pain, prolapsed rectum and grinding of teeth. The clinical course, was 2-3 days; however many calves in this lot that did not die, remained underdeveloped. Three calves were necropsied. Necropsy findings included firm, light tan livers and marked hydrothorax, ascites and edema of the mesentery, mesocolon and of the mucosal folds of the abomasum. Main histopathological changes were restricted to the liver and consisted of fibrosis, moderate megalocytosis, biliary duct hyperplasia and venoocclusive disease. The analysis by thin layer chromatography of the corn fed to calves revealed 5,136 ppb of aflatoxin B1. A diagnosis of aflatoxicosis was made based on the characteristic clinical signs and pathology, on the absence of Senecio spp. in the food and on the presence of high levels of aflatoxin in the corn fed to the calves. In the second part of the thesis, two experiments were performed in order to determine the toxic effects of varying doses of aflatoxins in calves. Clinical, productive and pathologic aspects of affected calves were considered. In the first experiment, nine 2-4- month old calves Holstein Friesian calves were fed, for two months, daily amounts corresponding to 1.5% of their body weight of a ration containing 500±100 ppb of aflatoxins. Three calves were used as controls. In the second experiment, three 4-5-month old Holstein Friesian calves, were orally fed daily small parcels of a concentrate of aflatoxins diluted in 500 ml of water corresponding to 1,250, 2,500 e 5,000 ppb of B1 aflatoxin (AFB1). A male calf was used as control. During all the experimental period of the first experiment, the weight gain of the calves receiving AFB1 was equivalent to that of the control group and no differences were observed between treated and control calves when the values of serum activity of aspartate transaminase (AST), serum albumin (SA), total serum protein (TP), and PVC, determined weekly, were compared. A significant difference in the serum activities of alkaline phosphatase (AP) and gamma glutamyl transferase when the serum sampled on the 63th day of the experiment was considered. During the whole experimental period and up to three weeks after the final of the experiment, no clinical signs or histopathological changes associated with the consumption of aflatoxins were observed in any of the calves of the first experiment. In the second experiment, clinical signs observed in three treated calves included loss of appetite, decrease in weight gain, and loss of weight Jaundice, intermittent diarrhea, tenesmus and apathy were only observed in the calf receiving 5,000 ppb of AFB1. Increased activity of AF and GGT were observed in all the calves of the treated group. No changes were observed regarding PCV, TP, total bilirubin, direct bilirubin and in the serum activity of AST in any of the calves of the second experiment. Histopathological changes in intoxicated calves included bile duct proliferation, cytoplasmic vacuolar hepatocelular degeneration consistent with hepatocelular deposit of lipids, periportal to bridging fibrosis, megalocytosis, subendothelial edema and fibrosis in terminal hepatic veins. Necropsy findings in the euthanatized calf which receive de largest doses of AFB1 included slight enlargement of the liver which was firm and diffusely light-yellow, mild ascites, and edema of the mesentery and of abomasal folds. / Na primeira parte dessa tese, relatamos a ocorrência de um surto de aflatoxicose crônica bezerros de raça leiteira. Quarenta bezerros holandeses, machos, de quatro meses de idade e aproximadamente 100 kg eram alimentados com feno de alfafa, milho quebrado e substituto de leite. Seis bezerros (15%) morreram após apresentar uma doença caracterizada por mau desenvolvimento geral, diarreia, pelagem áspera, dor abdominal, tenesmo, prolapso de reto e bruxismo. A duração do curso clínico foi de 2-3 dias; muitos terneiros desse lote que não morreram permaneceram pouco desenvolvidos. Os achados de necropsia de três bezerros incluíam fígado firme e castanho-claro, marcados hidrotórax e ascite, e edema do mesentério, mesocólon e das dobras da mucosa do abomaso. Os principais achados histopatológicos estavam restritos ao fígado e consistiam de fibrose, moderada megalocitose, hiperplasia de ductos biliares e lesão veno-oclusiva. A análise do milho do alimento dos bezerros por cromatografia de camada delgada revelou 5.136 ppb de aflatoxina B1 (AFB1). O diagnóstico de aflatoxicose foi feito baseado nos sinais clínicos e patologia característicos, na ausência de Senecio spp. na alimentação dos terneiros e na presença de altos níveis de aflatoxina no milho da alimentação dos bezerros. Na segunda parte da tese, dois experimentos foram realizados para determinar os efeitos tóxicos de diferentes doses de aflatoxinas em bezerros, considerando-se aspectos clínicos, produtivos e patológicos. No primeiro, nove bezerros, Holandês, com 2-4 meses de idade, receberam ração contendo 500±100 ppb de aflatoxina, na quantidade equivalente a 1,5% do peso vivo/dia, durante dois meses. Três bezerros foram usados como controle. No segundo experimento, três bezerros, Holandês, com 4-5 meses de idade, receberam, por via oral, pequenas porções diárias de um concentrado de aflatoxinas, diluídas em 500 ml de água, correspondendo a doses de 1.250, 2.500 e 5.000 ppb de AFB1. Um bezerro foi usado como controle. No primeiro experimento, o ganho de peso dos bezerros recebendo AFB1 foi equivalente ao do grupo controle durante todo período experimental e não foram observadas alterações na atividade sérica da enzima aspartato transaminase (AST), da albumina sérica (AS), da proteína total (PT) e no hematócrito, quando comparados os resultados semanais do grupo tratamento e controle. Diferenças significativas nas atividades séricas das enzimas fosfatase alcalina (FA) e gama glutamil transferase (GGT) ocorreram na coleta do 63º dia do experimento. Não foram observados sinais clínicos e alterações histopatológicas de aflatoxicose em qualquer dos bezerros do grupo tratamento desse experimento. No segundo experimento, sinais clínicos observados nos bezerros intoxicados incluíram perda de apetite, diminuição do ganho de peso e emagrecimento. Icterícia, diarreia intermitente, tenesmo e apatia severa, foram observadas apenas em um bezerro (5.000 ppb de AFB1). Níveis alterados da atividade sérica de FA e GGT foram observados em todos os bezerros do grupo tratamento. Não foram observadas variações no hematócrito e na atividade sérica de AST, nem nos níveis séricos de PT, bilirrubina total e bilirrubina direta em qualquer dos bezerros desse experimento. Alterações histopatológicas nos bezerros intoxicados incluíram proliferação de ductos biliares, degeneração citoplasmática vacuolar consistente com acumulação hepatocelular de lipídios, fibrose periportal, ou em ponte, megalocitose, fibrose subendotelial das veias hepáticas terminais e edema. Achados de necropsia do bezerro recebendo a maior dose de AFB1 incluíram fígado levemente aumentado de tamanho, difusamente amarelo-claro e firme, discreta ascite, edema de mesentério e submucosa do abomaso.