<p> In 2012, 1% of the African American women who enrolled in an undergraduate engineering program four years prior graduated, amounting to 862 African American women graduating with engineering degrees. This qualitative study, anchored in interpretive phenomenological methodology, utilized undergraduate socialization with an overarching critical race theory lens to examine the manner in which African American women in engineering, such as the 862, make meaning of their experiences at predominately White institutions. </p><p> The findings of the study are important because they corroborated existing research findings and more importantly, the findings in this study emphasize the importance of faculty and institutional agent support, self-efficacy leading to motivation, academic achievement goals and the development of science identities. These factors were significant to the persistence of African American women in this study. Moreover, this study&rsquo;s findings suggest that these factors must work in concert to be most effective. The findings demonstrated that students need to develop relationships with faculty, administrators and peers. The administrators provide access to resources that assist with persistence and peers are needed for group work and academic support. The faculty relation is most important because the faculty members provide access to information, research opportunities, grades and research and industry contacts. The research also found that the women carried the responsibility of developing and nurturing the relation with the faculty. </p><p> Moreover, all of the African American women in the study acknowledge racism and sexism however, they responded to these deterrents differently. Some of the women were negatively affected while others chose to ignore the deterrents. However, with the presence of these obstacles, the study validated the notion that these African American women in engineering had a strong sense of self-efficacy which provided a foundation for the women to possess science identities: research scientist, altruistic or disruptive. With these identities, the African American women sought to engage their scientific knowledge further in graduate school, the workplace and altruistically to improve upon society. </p><p> These findings produce implications for policy and practice, suggesting that engineering colleges commit to transforming academic environments to reflect an atmosphere that is inclusive and supportive of racial and gender differences. This transformation should encompass pedagogy, curriculum, composition of faculty and student populations as well as the academic culture, allowing for a more welcoming and supportive atmosphere, where African American women can persist without concern for proving themselves because of their race or gender.</p>

<p> Research on race and sentencing is increasingly moving beyond racial category analyses to include more subtle attributes such as skin tone and facial features. In keeping with this progression, this research examines the extent to which convicted offenders' Afrocentric facial features interact with sex in order to create longer criminal sentences for stereotypically Black males and females. A random sample of Black and White males and females currently serving prison sentences in the state of Oregon were selected for inclusion in the study. A preliminary regression analysis was run in order to determine the effect of broad racial category on sentencing length when controlling for offense characteristics, offense history, and extralegal factors. Additionally, photographs of a sample of 110 Black males and 91 Black females were rated for strength of Afrocentric facial features by undergraduate students. These ratings were averaged to create an Afrocentric rating for each Black individual in the sample. Regression analyses were then conducted for Black individuals in order to determine the effect of Afrocentric facial features and sex on sentence length. Results suggested that although broad racial category is not a significant predictor of sentence length, Afrocentric facial features interact with sex to produce longer sentences for Black males, but not Black females, with stronger Afrocentric facial features. Individuals with the fewest Afrocentric facial features were excluded from the analysis in order to limit the potential misperception of racial category by judges. These findings are consistent with current understandings of feature-trait stereotyping, as well as the focal concerns perspective regarding judicial decision-making. </p>

<p> Prisons in the United States are full to capacity because of the revolving doors created by recidivism. African American women comprise a significant proportion of those who return to prison, yet most studies about women and recidivism focus on the experiences of white women. The communities into which formerly incarcerated African American women are released do not make things easier in terms of the potential for reoffending because of the difficult access to good jobs, safe housing, good health care services, and assistance with child cares services. Using Cullen&rsquo;s social support theory as the foundation, the purpose of this general qualitative study was to explore the perspectives and post-release experiences of participants while living in their community. Fourteen African American ex-convicted women, ages 18 to 55 who reside in a large mid-Atlantic city participated in open-ended interviews to further explore the social factors related to recidivism. These data were analyzed using thematic analysis. Key findings include that success is tied to a sense of self, most participants expressed a sense of gratitude for their success, and that family, friends, government support, and the effects of rehabilitation programs contribute to success in living in communities after release from prison. The positive social change implications of this study include recommendations to correctional officials to focus on strengthening opportunities for pro-social interactions with appropriate support systems including working with other government agencies to reach out to formerly incarcerated African American women for services that are unique to their needs and circumstances. These efforts may improve public safety through reductions in future crimes.</p><p>

<p> This research explores the ways a student&rsquo;s implied race may impact teachers&rsquo; understanding of school discipline. While the school-to-prison pipeline has been studied extensively, the role of gender, and the factors that may shape the disproportionate punishment of African-American girls, has been neglected. This study focuses on how the implied racial identity of girls may affect which girls are punished for violating school rules, as well as the extent to which they are punished, in some cases also showing how teachers understand their own motivation to punish. This study uses four vignettes to gauge responses to hypothetical rule violations from 34 current and/or former middle or high school teachers in the United States, comparing how the educators respond to differently raced girls who are identified as breaking school disciplinary codes. This study is a small but important piece in analyzing the school-to-prison pipeline and, in particular, to see why race is often a distorting factor in understanding who we punish and how we punish them. One of the findings of this study is that racial and gendered stereotypes and biases may lead to disproportionate and overly harsh school discipline recommendations for African-American girls. Encouragingly, responses from this survey did reflect an unexpected, yet promising shift from punitive to more restorative practices in terms of how some teachers want to handle school code violations. This newer approach to school discipline could potentially reduce the number of suspensions and/or expulsions, possibly lessening the presence of African-American girls in the school-to-prison pipeline.</p><p>

<p> Empirical evidence shows that successful marriages among African Americans are often more egalitarian than hierarchical; however, there was no known research that explored how curricula developers depict non-conventional gender roles in relationship education designed for African Americans. This content analysis involved exploration of nonconventional gender roles in three relationship education curricula developed for African Americans. Analyses included both the manifest (explicit) and latent (implicit) messages of the curricula to determine whether portrayals of gender roles were conventional or non-conventional. The PIES (Political/Intercultural/Economic/Social) model of marital dimensions allowed analysis of marital gender roles using an organizational analysis model that included the political (power structures and decision-making), intercultural (values and beliefs about manhood and womanhood), economic (employment and education of the couple), and social (domestic roles and responsibilities) dimensions of marriage. Results of the study revealed that the intercultural dimension tended toward conventional characteristics, even when the political, economic, and social dimensions were non-conventional. The results suggested that curricula developers design curricula based on conventional contexts of marriage that do not include African Americans&rsquo; historical context of marital gender roles in the United States. Two of the curricula described titular type leadership that combines aspects of conventional and nonconventional gender roles in the PIES model and is most effective when husbands practice servant leadership. Explicit instruction about gender roles through the PIES model was a suggestion to help resolve the cognitive dissonance created by conflicting ontological perspectives, especially in Biblical contexts. </p>

<p> HIV infections rates for African American females in the United States remain disproportionately high with no significant evidence that the current trend will change in the near future. For 17 consecutive years, HIV related illnesses continues to be the leading cause of death for African American females ages 25-34, creating additional social and economic burdens for families and communities who have been devastated by this epidemic. This qualitative phenomenological heuristic study was conducted using focus group interviews, journal entries, and letters to explore the lived experiences of nine courageous HIV/ positive African American females, ages 39 to 78, living in the Metropolitan area of Orlando, FL. Additionally, over 2 years of the researcher&rsquo;s journal entries were added to the richness of the collected data. Findings included four core themes that emerged from the data analysis: (a) lack of knowledge about HIV/AIDS and related issues; (b) low self-worth, poor self-acceptance, and lack of responsibility for self; (c) personal, familial, and social conflicts; and (d) stigma, fear, shame, and guilt that contributed to the HIV seroconversion in nine African American females. The following three themes may be used potentially to develop prevention programs for generalized populations throughout the United States: (e) spiritual and faith based initiatives of shared core beliefs; (f) empowerment and advocacy groups based on attributes of women as healers; and (g) peer campaigns strategies.</p>

In 2009, 713,220 new cases of cancer were diagnosed for women in the United States with more than a quarter million deaths. African American women and lesbians exhibit behavioral risk factors as well as diminished access to and utilization of breast cancer screening that reduces opportunities for early detection. This secondary analysis of a national convenience-based study examined screening compliance among 647 African American lesbian and bisexual women. Barriers to accessing screening represented the theoretical framework for this study. Bivariate chi square analysis was used to assess the association between independent variables: sociodemographic characteristics; participation in wellness activities; sexual orientation/gender identity; and experience with health care providers and the three dependent breast cancer screening compliance variables: breast self-examination (BSE), clinical breast examination (CBE), and mammography screening. Statistically significant associations between dependent and independent variables at the .05 level were further analyzed with logistic regression. Results of the ten regression models found that BSE was predicted by socioeconomic characteristics and participation in wellness activities. Compliance with CBE guidelines was predicted by sociodemographic characteristics, wellness activities, sexual orientation/gender identity and provider experience. Sociodemographic variables and provider experience also predicted mammography screening. Overall compliance was predicted by sociodemographic characteristics, namely insurance status. The social change implications of this research are an improved understanding of African American lesbian and bisexual women's screening behavior and guidance toward interventions that can improve and breast cancer screening compliance with guidelines.

Although many studies have been conducted on the increased pressure and stress facing women who are trying to fulfill work and family demands, little is known about African American women in executive positions and their perspectives about work-life balance. A particular gap in the research literature exists on the lived experience of African American nonprofit executive women in maintaining work-life balance. The conceptual framework of this phenomenological study was the bidirectional frame of both work interfering with family and family interfering with work. Data were collected through semistructured telephone interviews of 12 African American women ages 30 to 45 and with children under the age of 18 who work as full-time executive directors for nonprofit organizations in the Northeastern US. The data from the transcribed interviews were stored, coded, reported in themes, and summarized by using the data analysis program HyperRESEARCH, followed by member checking with the participants. The participants included suggestions to improve the work-life balance for nonprofit executive women, such as exercising, networking and strong family support, delegating and scheduling work responsibilities, and utilizing flexible work schedules; however, it was clear from the interviews that the participants were not practicing the suggestions they provided to help balance work-life activities. The participants found it difficult to combine their own work-family responsibilities because of the time constraints at work. The implications for positive social change include informing organizations of the need to recognize the importance of family-friendly policies and flexible work arrangements, and to implement them in the workplace.