A Research Report submitted to the Faculty of Science, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science. Johannesburg, 25 May 2015. / The African elephant, Loxodonta africana displays sexual segregation, a phenomenon which describes males and females of the same species living separately, except during the mating season. Despite it occurring in many sexually dimorphic species, the factors that govern sexual segregation are still poorly understood. The aim of my study was to investigate whether or not African elephants in the 1825 km2 Associated Private Nature Reserves (APNR), Limpopo Province were sexually segregated as a result of habitat segregation. I tested the Forage Selection Hypothesis (FSH) which, based on the Jarman-Bell principle, predicts that smaller females are more selective foragers as a result of their high energy demands and poor digestive capabilities in comparison to the larger males. Using the GPS location data of 18 collared adult elephants (12 male and 6 female) from November 2008 to November 2010, I plotted both the total (95% isopleth) and core (50% isopleth) home ranges of individual elephants. I used these home ranges to i) confirm sexual segregation in the APNR, ii) determine whether or not there was a difference in vegetation composition of the home ranges between males and females, and iii) to establish how frequently male and female elephants were associated with each of the vegetation types located within their home ranges. All analyses were done at both the total and core home range level. Home range overlaps were rare between male and female home ranges, particularly at the core home range level, confirming sexual segregation of elephants in the APNR. The vegetation composition data of the home ranges as well as the frequency of association by elephants with each of the available vegetation types (using GPS locations) revealed no significant difference between male and female elephants. Therefore, habitat segregation did not explain sexual segregation by elephants in the APNR. I propose that future studies should consider: i) temporal distribution of elephants to assess how much time each sex spends in each of the available vegetation types; ii) other resources, particularly the availability of water, in addition to the availability of forage, since water limits elephant movements; and iii) social segregation in conjunction with habitat segregation, since elephants display sex-specific differences in social organisation. A comprehensive understanding of the factors that govern sexual segregation of elephants might contribute to conservation management of elephants in the APNR and other small reserves.

A dissertation submitted to the Faculty of Science, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science. Johannesburg, May 2014. / Conservation has led to African elephants (Loxodonta africana) being reintroduced to small game reserves. However, only a few studies have been done on how elephants react to their new environment after a translocation. Dinokeng Game Reserve introduced a herd of 10 elephants (Loxodonta Africana) in October 2011. Using Global Positioning System collar locations of one female elephant, I aimed to determine whether an elephant’s exploration resulted in an expansion of its home range as the elephant settled in its new environment. Secondly, I aimed to determine how the use of resources and conditions in an elephant’s environment changed from release to the end of the study period. To achieve my first objective, I calculated the elephant’s daily distance movement distances and home ranges over 16-day and seasonal periods. I used logistic regression to assess the habitat selection of the elephant over the study period. The results of the research demonstrated that the elephant slowly explored its new environment, which resulted in an expansion of its home range over time. However, it took almost two years before the elephant displayed signs of settling in its home range. The elephant used habitats further away from buildings, closer to fence boundaries and water sources, with low elevation and high greenness at the start of the study. Over time, the elephant’s habitat selection was no longer constrained by buildings and it demonstrated stronger evidence of using habitats with lower elevation towards the end of the study period. The findings suggest that elephants do not necessarily explore extensively before finding an area to remain in, and it may take longer than a year for them to settle. Furthermore, human settlements seem to limit elephant’s habitat selection a translocation, but this influence decreases as the elephant settles in its new environment.

Thesis (M.Tech.: Homoeopathy)-Durban University of Technology, 2008. xiv, 222 leaves / A proving of ivory from the male African elephant (Loxodonta africana) 30CH was conducted. The proving symptoms were then analysed according to the doctrine of signatures, and compared to the proving symptoms of Lac Loxodonta africana. Aims and Objectives of the study The aim of this study was to identify the effects of ivory from male African elephant (Loxodonta africana) in a 30CH dilution, on healthy provers, and to record the clearly observable signs and symptoms produced by the provers, so as to determine the material medica of the proven substance. The objective of the study was to analyze the symptoms obtained from the proving according to the doctrine of signatures, and to establish any correlation that may exist between the homoeopathic drug picture produced and this doctrine. Methodology The remedy was derived from the tusk of a male african elephant (Loxodonta africana) and was prepared in accordance to the German Homeopathic Pharmacopoeia (Drishien, 2003:36-38). The remedy was dispensed in the form of six lactose powders. The research was conducted as a randomised, double blind placebo controlled study. A group of provers (26) that were carefully selected from the general public (Appendix A) were divided into two groups. Recruitment commenced by obtaining suitable provers through speaking to fellow homoeopathic students, as ii well as members of the general public. The researchers conducted interviews with potential provers, excluding those that did not meet the inclusion criteria (Appendix A). The provers were randomly divided into two groups, and instructed to begin recording in their journals a week before starting the remedy, and a week after taking the remedy. The provers continued to record all symptoms until the symptoms abated and continued recording after this time for another two weeks. Once the proving had been completed another full case history and physical exam was performed. Results After the results were collaborated the proving symptoms were then analysed according to the doctrine of signatures. The results of this proving indicated that Loxodonta africana has the potential to be a valuable remedy in homoeopathic practice. Proving signs and symptoms revealed that the remedy could be indicated for mental and emotional conditions as well as a variety of physical diseases. The results of this research confirmed the hypothesis that the proving of Loxodonta africana 30CH would produce clear observable signs and symptoms when administered to healthy individuals. The results of this research also confirmed the second hypothesis that a comparison would exist between the proving symptoms and a doctrine of signatures analysis. Conclusion Thus the proving of Loxodonta africana and the subsequent comparison to the doctrine of signatures has the potential to become a well utilised homoeopathic remedy.

Thesis (M.Tech.: Homoeopathy)-Durban University of Technology, 2008. xiv, 222 leaves / A proving of ivory from the male African elephant (Loxodonta africana) 30CH was conducted. The proving symptoms were then analysed according to the doctrine of signatures, and compared to the proving symptoms of Lac Loxodonta africana. Aims and Objectives of the study The aim of this study was to identify the effects of ivory from male African elephant (Loxodonta africana) in a 30CH dilution, on healthy provers, and to record the clearly observable signs and symptoms produced by the provers, so as to determine the material medica of the proven substance. The objective of the study was to analyze the symptoms obtained from the proving according to the doctrine of signatures, and to establish any correlation that may exist between the homoeopathic drug picture produced and this doctrine. Methodology The remedy was derived from the tusk of a male african elephant (Loxodonta africana) and was prepared in accordance to the German Homeopathic Pharmacopoeia (Drishien, 2003:36-38). The remedy was dispensed in the form of six lactose powders. The research was conducted as a randomised, double blind placebo controlled study. A group of provers (26) that were carefully selected from the general public (Appendix A) were divided into two groups. Recruitment commenced by obtaining suitable provers through speaking to fellow homoeopathic students, as ii well as members of the general public. The researchers conducted interviews with potential provers, excluding those that did not meet the inclusion criteria (Appendix A). The provers were randomly divided into two groups, and instructed to begin recording in their journals a week before starting the remedy, and a week after taking the remedy. The provers continued to record all symptoms until the symptoms abated and continued recording after this time for another two weeks. Once the proving had been completed another full case history and physical exam was performed. Results After the results were collaborated the proving symptoms were then analysed according to the doctrine of signatures. The results of this proving indicated that Loxodonta africana has the potential to be a valuable remedy in homoeopathic practice. Proving signs and symptoms revealed that the remedy could be indicated for mental and emotional conditions as well as a variety of physical diseases. The results of this research confirmed the hypothesis that the proving of Loxodonta africana 30CH would produce clear observable signs and symptoms when administered to healthy individuals. The results of this research also confirmed the second hypothesis that a comparison would exist between the proving symptoms and a doctrine of signatures analysis. Conclusion Thus the proving of Loxodonta africana and the subsequent comparison to the doctrine of signatures has the potential to become a well utilised homoeopathic remedy.

Most elephants in South Africa live in enclosed areas such as the Tembe Elephant Park in Maputaland. The Park also protects sand forest. This can create a conflict of interest as elephants may influence species typical of these forests. To assess the effects that elephants may have for vegetation, I compare variables of similar plant communities inside and outside the Park. I then compared the space and landscape utilization of elephants living in the Park with those of free-ranging elephants living in southern Mozambique. In the final analyses, I used meta-analytical methods to interpret my findings. Woody seedlings showed no measurable response to tree canopies that elephants have altered, but the response of grasses and woody saplings depended on the landscape type. In closed woodlands, elephants generated gaps in the canopy layer that increased structural heterogeneity. These gaps favoured the establishment of grasses, and along with herbivory, may have been responsible for reduced occurrence of woody saplings. In the open woodlands, elephants and frequent hot fires in the Park apparently homogenised this landscape. In this case, altered tree canopies reduced grass and woody sapling presence. The species compositions of sand forests, closed woodlands and open woodlands between inside and outside the Park differed. However, tree and shrub densities, their abundance-incidence and rank-abundance relationships were similar for a given landscape inside and outside the Park. Ecological events operating at larger scales, such as seed dispersal and droughts, mask the influence elephant have for these community variables. Elephants in the Park had smaller home ranges than free-ranging elephants living in southern Mozambique. The size of these home ranges were however, similar to that predicted by rainfall, as suggested by my analysis of data collected across southern Africa. The elephants that roamed freely in southern Mozambique prefer closed woodlands throughout the year. However, elephants confined to the Park avoided reed beds (with natural surface water) in the dry season and showed no landscape preference in the wet season. My meta-analysis on the effects of elephants on other taxa included 230 peer-reviewed studies. These were published over a 40-year period and included information from 74 sites. From only those studies used in the effect size calculations, when conducted over a period of less than 5 years show a negative impact while those conducted over longer periods show a neutral effect. Site-specific differences, such as rainfall, may also influence the effect elephants have for plants. Twenty of the 230 studies shared more than 50% of all citings. The majority (16 of the 20) claimed that elephants had a negative influence for plants. This is in contrast with the findings of all studies included in the analysis – half of these concluded a positive effect and the other half a negative effect. In short, elephants do not decrease the diversity of other species present in the system, despite their adverse effects for individual trees. Elephants affect ecosystems at small scales. Providing an opportunity for elephants presently living in Tembe Elephant Park to disperse across their former ranges may negate negative influences on sensitive vegetation in the Park. / Thesis (PhD (Zoology))--University of Pretoria, 2007. / Zoology and Entomology / unrestricted

The aim of this study was to define the ovarian follicular reserve of wild African elephants in terms of its type of small follicles (SF), its establishment and distribution throughout the ovaries, and the change in numbers of SF in the embryo and fetus as well as throughout prepubertal and adult life. The large elephant population in Zimbabwe provided the opportunity to collect ovaries from elephants culled for management reasons and hunted professionally. In total, gross morphological and histological studies were done on the gonadal ridges from 5 embryos (76–96 days post conception) and ovaries from 11 fetuses (4.8–22.2 months), 29 prepubertal females (2 months–10 years), 24 adult females (11–55 years) and 7 aged females (56–70 years). Specimens were fixed in 4% buffered formalin before a series of 25 ìm thick sections were cut and examined using stereological protocols to count SF numbers in each section and thereby calculate the follicle reserve of the whole ovary. Prior to counting SF numbers, their distribution throughout the ovary was studied and the repeatability of counts was validated. Numbers of SF were highest in mid-term fetuses, lower in fetuses during the second half of gestation, even lower in calves younger than 4½ years, whereas the numbers in calves aged 4½–9 years were significantly higher than those in younger calves, and similar to what they were in late-term fetuses. The numbers of SF were substantially and highly significantly lower in elephant 10–15 years in age compared to calves aged 4½9 years, suggesting a reduction around puberty. Thereafter the ovarian reserve fell steadily until depletion around the age of 70 years. During adult life the ovarian reserve was composed of early-primary (EP) and true-primary (TP) follicles. By 45 years of age only TP follicles remained although these enabled oestrous cyclical activity for many more years; of 7 sets of ovaries recovered from females aged 57–70 years, 6 showed evidence of cyclical activity or pregnancy within the preceding 6 years. The study shows that EP and TP form the follicular reserve from before birth until 45 years, with TP forming the reserve thereafter, which depletes in some old elephants and persists to maximum life span in others. / Thesis (PhD)--University of Pretoria, 2012. / Production Animal Studies / unrestricted

The GnRH vaccine may offer an alternative to the current immunocontraceptive method in elephant cows which uses native porcine zona pellucida proteins derived from abattoir slaughtered pigs as the immunogen, greatly limiting its availability. The pZP vaccine is stored at -20 °C and must be mixed with an adjuvant before use. The GnRH vaccine Improvac® is commercially available, already contains the adjuvant and can be stored at 4 °C. The aim of this study was to evaluate the efficacy of the gonadotrophin releasing hormone (GnRH) vaccine Improvac® (Pfizer Animal Health, Sandton, South Africa) in the induction of anoestrus in elephant cows. The Improvac® was administered to eight adult, female, healthy, free-ranging elephants, located in Entabeni Private Game Reserve in the Limpopo Province, South Africa. Another four cows were left untreated and served as controls. The monitoring of the experimental population was conducted over a twelve-month observation period via non-invasive faecal steroid analysis. Progesterone metabolites in extracted samples were measured by Enzyme Immunoassay (EIA) to determine luteal activity and thus the effect of the GnRH vaccine on the endocrine correlates. This study started with a three-month control period prior to vaccination when faeces were collected from each study animal, as soon as possible after defecation to ensure positive identification of the individual with its sample. The three-month period was followed by the immunization protocol. The elephants all received a primary, followed by a booster vaccination dose five weeks later. Each dose of 3 ml contained 600 ìg of RnRF-protein conjugate; both treatments were applied via remote delivery. Monitoring continued until the end of the twelve-month observation period. Observations of oestrous behaviour during the twelve-month period were also recorded. The results showed no statistical difference between treated and control females. There was, however, marked individual variation in response to GnRH immunization. This was possibly influenced by physiological and environmental factors such as age, where the youngest cows showed a better response in terms of reduced progestagen secretion; as well as season, where progestagen levels increased 1.3 times during the rainy season compared to the dry season. There was no association between average progestagen concentration and social hierarchy ranking. A high percentage (86.48%) of behaviours that could be related to oestrus coincided with the onset of the luteal phase and a subsequent rise in progestagen concentrations. All the females (treated and control) showed some evidence of ovarian cyclicity during the study, although 75% of the cycles did not fall within the normal 13-17 week oestrous cycle range reported, suggesting that abnormal cycles are a common reproduction irregularity inherent to non-pregnant wild African elephants. Further research to determine the optimal vaccination protocol is indicated in order to obtain consistent responses to the vaccine that will provide an efficient and safe contraceptive for use in female African elephants. Copyright / Dissertation (MSc)--University of Pretoria, 2011. / Production Animal Studies / unrestricted

The aim of the study was to determine the consequences of elephant (Loxodonta africana) impact on selected nesting sites of avian fauna and other species in the Associated Private Nature Reserves. The study also aimed at answering key questions on how the architecture of trees influence nest site suitability and what landscape features affect nest site location. Furthermore the type of impact that elephants have on specific nesting sites was determined and how this would affect the short term persistence of these trees. The facillitatory role of elephants was examined by looking at the type of impact that produces gum exudants as well as what gum is selected for by primates and whether primary branch breaking may lead to the creation of nesting sites for species such as the southern ground hornbill (Bucorvus leadbeateri). / Environmental Sciences / M. Sc. (Environmental Management)

The aim of the study was to determine the consequences of elephant (Loxodonta africana) impact on selected nesting sites of avian fauna and other species in the Associated Private Nature Reserves. The study also aimed at answering key questions on how the architecture of trees influence nest site suitability and what landscape features affect nest site location. Furthermore the type of impact that elephants have on specific nesting sites was determined and how this would affect the short term persistence of these trees. The facillitatory role of elephants was examined by looking at the type of impact that produces gum exudants as well as what gum is selected for by primates and whether primary branch breaking may lead to the creation of nesting sites for species such as the southern ground hornbill (Bucorvus leadbeateri). / Environmental Sciences / M. Sc. (Environmental Management)

This study presents an investigation into the population dynamics and social structure of a small, closed elephant population. Specifically, it examined population growth rates for evidence of density-dependent regulation. It also quantified the association patterns of female elephants groups, and male elephants groups. Social structure was examined using Hamilton’s kinship theories of inclusive fitness, and age. Male-female patterns of association were also examined for inbreeding avoidance behaviours. The study population was located in Addo Elephant National Park, South Africa. Density-dependence was assessed using a long-term data set. Densities were considerably higher than estimated carrying capacities. Population growth rate was positively correlated with increasing density. No relationship between birth rate, the age of first calving or calf sex ratio and elephant density was detected but there was a positive relationship between birth rate and rainfall during conception year. Mortality rates, particularly for juveniles, were low, and mean inter-calf interval was 3.3 years. There is no evidence of density dependent regulation in this population. These findings indicate that density dependence should not be considered as an option in the control of elephant numbers in this Park, or where elephant resources are not seasonally limited. Examination of association patterns of the adult female component revealed that associations were not random at the population, family or individual scale. This is the second study on African elephants to confirm previous behavioural studies that predicted that preferred associates were close maternal relatives. This supports many studies showing that social species preferentially associate with their kin. The adult males in this population were found to have a well differentiated society with non-random associations. Generally, males were found to have weak associations with most other males and strong associations with only a few males. This association pattern was found to be persistent over the time frame of the study, as indicated by the time lag analysis. Males returned to their natal family, even when maternally related females were in oestrus. Oestrous females directed positive behaviours towards musth males. It appears that behavioural inbreeding avoidance mechanisms in this small, closed population are inhibited: musth status seems to override inbreeding avoidance. General principles from this case study were interpreted in terms of their applicability to other small, closed populations.