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<p>Few contemporary studies have examined nutrient accumulation and partitioning of modern corn (Zea mays L.) hybrids grown under in-season sulfur (S) and potassium (K) nutrient management. A fertilizer x hybrid field experiment was conducted during the 2020 and 2021 growing seasons in West Lafayette, Indiana to (1) determine the efficacy of in-season fertilizer management as a strategy to increase grain yield among different modern hybrids, (2) determine the extent to which nutrient harvest index (NutHI) relates to other plant traits under intensive agronomic management, and (3) determine whether grain yield and within-plant nutrient dynamics respond to in-season S and K management differently depending on hybrid. The three fertilizer treatments (whole plot) were (1) Control, no S or K applied, (2) Sulfur, 22.4 kg S ha-1 broadcast applied as ammonium thiosulfate (ATS) [12-0-0-26S] immediately after planting, and (3) Sulfur_Potassium, S (from treatment 2) plus 108 kg K ha -1 topdress applied via Aspire™ [0-0- 58(K2O)-0.5B] at the V4 growth stage. The experiment consisted of four modern Pioneer® corn hybrids (subplot) that varied in crop relative maturity (CRM) from 105 to 114 days planted at the same density following fall strip tillage in a continuous corn production environment. Aboveground dry matter accumulation (DM) and plant tissue concentrations of N, P, K, S, and B were measured via whole-plant samples at V6, R1, and R6. Soil K levels were above the critical K level prior to K application but soil S was not reliably determined. </p> <p><br></p> <p>Grain yields following Sulfur and Sulfur_Potassium treatments were similar, averaging 14.6 Mg ha-1 , which represented a 20% increase over the 12.2 Mg ha-1 observed in the Control. Grain yield gains following S application were the result of increased S uptake, first detected at V6, which alleviated S-deficiency and improved the N to S ratio (N:S) within the plant. K application did not affect grain yield. The greatest contrast in grain yield among hybrids corresponded to extremes in CRM, from 12.9 Mg ha-1 in 105_day to 14.5 Mg ha-1 in 114_day. Fertilizer x hybrid interactions were rarely observed among measured variables with the notable exception of HI, which was increased in later maturity hybrids (111_day and 114_day) by Sulfur and Sulfur_Potassium relative to Control, but was unaffected by fertilizer treatments in 105_day and 110_day hybrids. Most phenotypic parameters were positively influenced by Sulfur and Sulfur_Potassium relative to Control, including above-ground dry matter accumulation (DM), nutrient accumulation, dry matter harvest index (HI), nutrient harvest index (NutHI), and 13 grain/stover nutrient concentrations at maturity. Compared to Control, total plant DM was increased following Sulfur and Sulfur_Potassium by an average of 14% at V6, 16% at R1, and 20% at R6. Whole-plant biomass totals were similar between Sulfur and Sulfur_Potassium, averaging 693 kg DM ha-1 at V6, 10909 kg DM ha-1 at R1, and 26170 kg DM ha-1 at R6; however, K application increased the proportion of total DM partitioned to stover rather than grain, which reduced HI from 0.58 under Sulfur to 0.56 under Sulfur_Potassium. </p> <p><br></p> <p>Nutrient accumulation (of N, P, K, S, and B) was influenced by in-season S and K application at all growth stages relative to the Control. Sulfur application increased V6 wholeplant S and K concentrations, but lowered P and B concentrations. Applying in-season K boosted V6 N and P concentrations, but temporarily reduced K uptake by 10%. Due to gains from S and K application in both DM and nutrient concentration at maturity, total nutrient accumulation in Sulfur_Potassium increased by up to 25% in N, 28% in P, 59% in K, 77% in S, and 44% in B. Total plant DM at maturity was reduced by 14% in the low-yielding 105_day hybrid relative to other hybrids at maturity, leading to similar reductions in nutrient accumulation despite relatively high nutrient concentrations. There was little hybrid variation in whole-plant P, S, and B uptake but substantial hybrid variation in N (9%) and K (21%) uptake. Partitioning of N, P, and K between stover and grain at maturity was influenced by the increased grain nutrient concentrations following Sulfur_Potassium relative to Sulfur. Grain nutrient concentrations under Sulfur relative to Sulfur_Potassium increased from 1.19% N to 1.24% for N, from 0.32 to 0.36% for P, and from 0.39 to 0.44% for K. When Sulfur_Potassium increased grain P and K concentrations over Sulfur, grain nutrient content (i.e., removal) also increased even when grain DM was similar, boosting removal from 48 kg P ha-1 to 54 kg P ha-1 , and from 58 kg K ha-1 to 65 kg K ha-1 . In contrast, grain S and B concentrations, at 0.08% S and 3.3 ppm B, as well as grain contents, at 12.4 kg S ha-1 and 0.05 kg B ha-1 , were similar under both Sulfur and Sulfur_Potassium. As previously stated, NutHI increased substantially in response to both S treatments relative to the Control. The NHI in the Control was just 0.57 versus 0.65 under S treatments while the P harvest index (PHI) was 0.71 versus 0.84, S harvest index (SHI) was 0.50 versus 0.57, and B harvest index (BHI) was 0.35 versus 0.39. Hybrid differences in NutHI were relatively small and were related to both DM and nutrient concentrations at maturity. </p> <p><br></p> <p>While further research is necessary to accurately assess nutrient accumulation and partitioning trends as nutrient management strategies continue to evolve, this study demonstrated 14 that in-season S applications can effectively increase grain yield under S-limiting conditions. Inseason K application did not increase grain yield over Sulfur alone (presumably due to adequate soil K); however, added K still enhanced both grain nutrient removal and NutHI. Furthermore, the influence of plant nutrient concentrations at maturity in both grain (positive) and stover (negative), on NutHI was strongest under fertilizer treatments and NutHI was less dependent on grain yield, total DM, or HI trends. Under hybrid treatments, the influence of nutrient concentrations on NutHI was dependent on DM parameters. While grain yield, DM, and HI were likely to have been contributing factors in NutHI determination, stover nutrient concentration was the most consistent factor related to NutHI across fertilizer and hybrid treatments. The observed variation in NutHI might imply there is still potential for improvement of this index beyond HI alone. Although fertilizer and hybrid treatment responses in whole-plant nutrient concentration were strong during the vegetative period, they were less indicative of NutHI than those at maturity. The positive impact of Sulfur_Potassium on grain nutrient concentration, in the absence of a grain yield response, highlighted a potential disparity between achievable levels of grain nutrient concentration and yield. While in-season nutrient applications can substantially increase grain yields, our results show that in-season fertilizer can also affect nutrient accumulation and partitioning, which are key factors to be considered when making nutrient management decisions. </p>

Approaches to projects and development have undergone considerable change in the last decade with significant policy shifts on governance, gender, poverty eradication, and environmental issues. Most recently this has led to the adoption and promotion of the sustainable livelihood (SL) approach. The adoption of the SL approach presents challenges to development interventions including: the future of projects and programmes, and sector wide approaches (SWAPs) and direct budgetary support.This paper `A livelihoods-grounded audit of the `Training for Environmental and Agricultural Management (TEAM) project in Lesotho¿ is the eleventh in the series of project working papers. / Department for International Development

O sistema agroindustrial citrícola brasileiro é reconhecido mundialmente não apenas pela sua grandeza, mas principalmente pela sua competitividade. Algo em torno de US$ 1,33 bilhão foi trazido ao Brasil pela cadeia citrícola em todas as suas exportações no ano de 2003, representando 1,87% das exportações brasileiras e 4,47% das exportações do agronegócio. Grande parte desses valores (72%) se deu a partir da venda do suco de laranja concentrado e congelado, com produção destinada quase que exclusivamente ao mercado externo. Nos últimos três anos, em torno de 75% das caixas de laranja produzidas foram processadas com essa finalidade, restando apenas cerca de um quarto da produção para o abastecimento do mercado interno. O Brasil, com uma área cultivada em torno de 820 mil hectares e produção de 327 milhões de caixas de 40,8 kg colhidas em 2003 (cerca de 13,3 milhões de toneladas), mantém há anos a posição de maior produtor mundial de laranja, sendo responsável por aproximadamente 30% do total produzido no mundo e mais de 80% das exportações mundiais de suco. O desenvolvimento do mercado interno de sucos e frutas torna-se uma importante ação a ser desenvolvida, haja vista que o setor é muito dependente das exportações de suco de laranja concentrado e congelado (SLCC), além de que o consumo per capita de frutas no Brasil é muito baixo comparado ao de outros países desenvolvidos. Com o objetivo de compreender o sistema agroindustrial citrícola, descrevendo as características dos membros atuantes nesse sistema e sua interação com os demais participantes, torna-se importante caracterizar e quantificar esse sistema contemplando uma seqüência de etapas que permita entendê-lo. Este estudo fundamenta-se no método para caracterização e quantificação de sistemas agroindustriais. Como resultado desta pesquisas, foi apresentado o desenho da cadeia citrícola quantificada que permitirá, em pesquisas futuras, desenvolver a elaboração de ações coletivas e implementação de políticas públicas para o fortalecimento da competitividade dessa cadeia e também no desenvolvimento de estratégias para as firmas envolvidas. / The Brazilian citrus agro industrial System is worldwide known not only for its greatness but mainly for its competitiveness. Something around 1.33 billion dollars was brought to Brazil by the citrus chain in consequence of all exports in 2003, what makes up 1.87% of all Brazilian exports and 4.4%of all agro industry exports. The bulk of these figures (72%) was due to type frozen concentrated juice which is basically produce for exportation. In the last three years 75% of all oranges produced in Brazil were aimed to this purpose, leaving only one fourth for domestic market. Brazil, with a citrus area of 820 thousand hectares and a production of 327 million of boxes with 40.9 kg each picked in 2003, has been for many years the world largest orange producer in the world with a share of 30% of the world production and 0ver 80% of world orange juice exportation. The domestic market development for juice and fruit becomes an important action to be developed, once the sector is highly dependent of frozen juice exportation (FCOJ; furthermore, the per capita consumption of oranges in Brazil is extremely low compared to other developed countries. In order to understand the citrus agro industrial system, describing the characteristics of acting members in the system and its interaction with other participants, it is important to characterize and quantify the system highlighting a sequence of phases that allow us to understand it, making possible the elaboration of strategies for the development of domestic market for fruits and orange juice. This study is based on the methodology developed by characterization and quantification of agro industrial systems. The result of this research a citrus chain drawing was shown, allowing in future researcher the development of coactive actions and the settlement public policy to make the chain competitiveness stronger and to developed in the chain.

O sistema agroindustrial citrícola brasileiro é reconhecido mundialmente não apenas pela sua grandeza, mas principalmente pela sua competitividade. Algo em torno de US$ 1,33 bilhão foi trazido ao Brasil pela cadeia citrícola em todas as suas exportações no ano de 2003, representando 1,87% das exportações brasileiras e 4,47% das exportações do agronegócio. Grande parte desses valores (72%) se deu a partir da venda do suco de laranja concentrado e congelado, com produção destinada quase que exclusivamente ao mercado externo. Nos últimos três anos, em torno de 75% das caixas de laranja produzidas foram processadas com essa finalidade, restando apenas cerca de um quarto da produção para o abastecimento do mercado interno. O Brasil, com uma área cultivada em torno de 820 mil hectares e produção de 327 milhões de caixas de 40,8 kg colhidas em 2003 (cerca de 13,3 milhões de toneladas), mantém há anos a posição de maior produtor mundial de laranja, sendo responsável por aproximadamente 30% do total produzido no mundo e mais de 80% das exportações mundiais de suco. O desenvolvimento do mercado interno de sucos e frutas torna-se uma importante ação a ser desenvolvida, haja vista que o setor é muito dependente das exportações de suco de laranja concentrado e congelado (SLCC), além de que o consumo per capita de frutas no Brasil é muito baixo comparado ao de outros países desenvolvidos. Com o objetivo de compreender o sistema agroindustrial citrícola, descrevendo as características dos membros atuantes nesse sistema e sua interação com os demais participantes, torna-se importante caracterizar e quantificar esse sistema contemplando uma seqüência de etapas que permita entendê-lo. Este estudo fundamenta-se no método para caracterização e quantificação de sistemas agroindustriais. Como resultado desta pesquisas, foi apresentado o desenho da cadeia citrícola quantificada que permitirá, em pesquisas futuras, desenvolver a elaboração de ações coletivas e implementação de políticas públicas para o fortalecimento da competitividade dessa cadeia e também no desenvolvimento de estratégias para as firmas envolvidas. / The Brazilian citrus agro industrial System is worldwide known not only for its greatness but mainly for its competitiveness. Something around 1.33 billion dollars was brought to Brazil by the citrus chain in consequence of all exports in 2003, what makes up 1.87% of all Brazilian exports and 4.4%of all agro industry exports. The bulk of these figures (72%) was due to type frozen concentrated juice which is basically produce for exportation. In the last three years 75% of all oranges produced in Brazil were aimed to this purpose, leaving only one fourth for domestic market. Brazil, with a citrus area of 820 thousand hectares and a production of 327 million of boxes with 40.9 kg each picked in 2003, has been for many years the world largest orange producer in the world with a share of 30% of the world production and 0ver 80% of world orange juice exportation. The domestic market development for juice and fruit becomes an important action to be developed, once the sector is highly dependent of frozen juice exportation (FCOJ; furthermore, the per capita consumption of oranges in Brazil is extremely low compared to other developed countries. In order to understand the citrus agro industrial system, describing the characteristics of acting members in the system and its interaction with other participants, it is important to characterize and quantify the system highlighting a sequence of phases that allow us to understand it, making possible the elaboration of strategies for the development of domestic market for fruits and orange juice. This study is based on the methodology developed by characterization and quantification of agro industrial systems. The result of this research a citrus chain drawing was shown, allowing in future researcher the development of coactive actions and the settlement public policy to make the chain competitiveness stronger and to developed in the chain.

Over the last 40 years North American grassland bird populations have declined more than any other bird guild. This trend is especially evident in Vermont, where species experiencing precipitous declines include the Savannah Sparrow (Passerculus sandwichensis) and Bobolink (Dolichonyx oryzivorus). These declines are linked to habitat loss due to reforestation and suburbanization as well as the intensification of grassland management. Modern grassland management includes earlier first-haying dates (late-May) and shorter intervals between haying events (35 days). These management practices have severe repercussions for songbird populations because 1) early-haying results in complete nest failure (99% Savannah Sparrow and 100% Bobolink nests), 2) the interval between the first and second haying is too short for birds to renest, and 3) intensively managed fields comprise a significant portion of the total available habitat (as much as 40%). In 2002-2006, I examined how hayfield and pasture management affected grassland songbird ecological and evolutionary behavior in the agricultural landscape of the Champlain Valley, Vermont and New York. I studied songbirds in four grassland management types: early-hayed fields harvested in late-May or early-June and again in mid-July; middle-hayed fields harvested in late-June or early-July; late-hayed fields harvested after 1 August; rotationally-grazed pastures, a matrix of small paddocks where cows are moved after the grass in a paddock is eaten to a low point. I addressed the following objectives: 1. Determined the annual productivity, survival, and recruitment of Bobolinks and Savannah Sparrows in the four treatment types. 2. Identified the effects of early-haying on the social and genetic mating systems of Savannah Sparrows. 3. Conducted a population viability analysis for Bobolinks and Savannah Sparrows nesting in the Champlain Valley, assessing sensitivities of life-history parameters and identifying effective management alternatives. This study provides information on how agricultural management affects the ecology, evolution, and viability of grassland birds. It will help inform landowners, managers, and law-makers about management practices and habitat requirements needed to sustain populations.

Os modelos convencionais de agricultura exigem o uso intensivo de implementos e insumos agrícolas. Este fato, associado à falta de orientação técnica e ao manejo agrícola inadequado, leva a um desequilíbrio do meio com modificações na biota do solo e consequentes alterações no pH, ciclo da matéria orgânica e diminuição da capacidade adsortiva, favorecendo, por exemplo, os processos de contaminação do solo, águas superficiais e subterrâneas. As características e propriedades do solo, como a textura, estrutura e teor de matéria orgânica, associadas a fatores como o clima, relevo e concentração dos agrotóxicos aplicados, afetam a mobilidade destes, de acordo com suas propriedades físico-químicas, influenciando diretamente na sorção das substâncias potencialmente tóxicas. Neste contexto, a pesquisa teve como objetivo avaliar a utilização do agrotóxico carbofurano, buscando identificar possíveis riscos de contaminação e os fatores que influenciam no sistema solo-água-planta de acordo com o perfil de manejo agrícola. Para tanto, escolhemos duas vertentes sob o mesmo tipo de manejo e cultivo de pupunha, porém, com materiais de origem diferentes. A área de estudos está localizada no município de Iporanga, onde o cultivo de palmito pupunha e a utilização do ingrediente ativo carbofurano são comuns. Utilizando-se do método do perfil de manejo foram abertas trincheiras ao longo das duas vertentes para a descrição morfológica e coleta de solo. Foram coletados ainda palmito e água bruta próxima à área, visando a detecção de resíduos do agrotóxico. Os resultados das análises não indicaram resíduos de carbofurano em nenhuma das amostras, constatando que não há contaminação do solo, das águas superficiais e do palmito. O estudo mostrou que, apesar de se encontrarem sob um mesmo tipo de manejo, as diferenças de material de origem, características físicas e químicas e morfologia das vertentes resultariam em diferentes processos de retenção, transporte e transformação dos contaminantes. / The conventional models of agriculture demand the intensive use of agricultural implements. This fact, associated with poor technical guidance and inadequate agricultural management, leads to an imbalance of the environment with changes to the soil biota and consequent alterations in pH, organic matter cycle and reduction of adsorptive capacity, favoring, for instance, the contamination processes of the soil, surface water and groundwater. The characteristics and properties of the soils, such as texture, structure and organic matter content, associated with factors such as climate, landforms and the concentration of pesticides affect the mobility of the latter, as a consequence of their physico-chemical properties, directly influencing the sorption of potentially toxic substances. In this context, the goal of this research was to evaluate the use of the defensive carbofuran, in order to identify possible contamination risks and the factors that influence the soil-water-plant system according to the type of agricultural practices. Therefore, we chose two slopes under the same type of agricultural practices and cultivation of the pupunha palm tree, but with different source materials. The study area is located in the municipality of Iporanga, where the cultivation of the pupunha and the use of carbofuran are common. Using the crop profile method, trenches were opened along the two slopes for morphological description and collection of soil samples. Pupunha and water were also collected near the area, aiming the detection of agrotoxic residues. The results of the analysis did not indicate residues of carbofuran in any of the samples, noting that we found no contamination of the soil, surface water or the pupunha. The study showed that, although the two slopes were under the same type of agricultural practice, the differences in source material, physical and chemical characteristics and the morphology of the slopes would lead to differences in retention, transportation and transformation of the contaminants.

Mapas de solos são essenciais para o desenvolvimento de áreas agrícolas de maneira economicamente viável e ambientalmente correta. Até o momento, o Brasil conta apenas com mapas de solos de escala pequena (1:250.000 a 1:1.000.000), cuja utilização é limitada para planejamento agrícola e ambiental a nível de propriedade rural. Apesar de sua importância, no Brasil poucos mapeamentos têm sido realizados pelos órgãos públicos competentes, principalmente por restrições orçamentárias e falta de pedólogos. Além disso, o 5º e 6º níveis categóricos do Sistema Brasileiro de Classificação de Solos (SiBCS), que devem ser utilizados em levantamentos detalhados, não estão definidos. Dessa forma, pouco se sabe a respeito da qualidade/similaridade dos mapas desse nível que vem sendo executados no país. Os principais motivos para essa situação são: elevado custo, mão-de-obra e tempo requeridos nos trabalhos de mapeamento. Uma alternativa para redução desses entraves é o mapeamento digital de solos (MDS). Sendo assim, objetivou-se: (i) comparar quatro mapas de solos convencionais de uma mesma área complexa, de mesma escala (1:10.000), elaborados por diferentes pedólogos de maneira independente, e (ii) comparar estes com um mapa de solos obtido por técnica de MDS. Para tanto, utilizou-se uma área de estudo de 182 ha, cultivada com cana-de-açúcar, localizada no município de Rafard (SP). Foram fornecidas aos pedólogos as mesmas informações: mapas geológico e pedológico semidetalhado (ambos escala 1:100.000), mapa planialtimétrico e fotografias aéreas (ambos escala 1:10.000). Viagens a campo, resultados de análise e exame de perfis foram realizados conforme estes julgaram necessário. Para o mapa digital de solos foram utilizados atributos de terreno (elevação, declividade, poder de fluxo dágua, fator LS, plano e perfil de curvatura), calculados a partir do modelo digital de elevação gerado com base no mapa planialtimétrico, e informação espectral superficial do solo de uma imagem de satélite Landsat 5 (sensor TM) obtida em período que a superfície do solo estava desnuda. Tais informações foram sintetizadas através da análise por componentes principais, sendo posteriormente feita uma compartimentação da área com auxílio da análise Fuzzy K-médias. Nos compartimentos foram realizadas observações para classificá-los como unidades de mapeamento. Os mapas foram então comparados dois a dois, sendo medida a correspondência espacial para cada um dos quatro níveis categóricos estabelecidos no SiBCS, e além destes acrescida a informação textural. Tanto para as comparações entre mapas convencionais, quanto para comparações com o mapa digital, houve redução da correspondência espacial para os níveis categóricos mais detalhados. A maior correspondência final (4º nível + textura) entre mapas convencionais se deu entre os mapas A e B (24,3 %). As maiores correspondências espaciais em relação ao mapa digital se deram entre este e o mapa A (35,2 %) e o mapa B (28,7 %). Portanto confirma-se que os mapas de solos convencionais variam conforme critérios subjetivos do executor, cuja mensuração é impraticável. O mapa de solos digital gerado pela metodologia proposta obteve índices de correspondência aos mapas convencionais semelhantes aos obtidos entre estes, sendo uma boa opção no processo de otimização dos trabalhos de mapeamento. / Soil maps are essential for the development of agricultural areas in an economically viable and environmentally friendly manner. So far, Brazil only has soil maps of small scale (1:250,000 to 1:1,000,000), whose use is limited to agricultural and environmental planning at the farm. Despite its importance, in Brazil a few mappings have been carried out by public authorities, primarily because budget constraints and lack of soil scientists. In addition, 5 and 6 categorical levels of the Brazilian System of Soil Classification (SiBCS), which should be used for detailed surveys, are not defined. Thus, little is known about the quality and level of similarity of the maps that have been undertaken in the country. The main reasons for this situation are: high cost, manpower and time required of mapping. An alternative to reducing these barriers is the digital soil mapping (DSM). Therefore, the objectives were to: (i) compare four conventional soil maps of the same complex area of the same scale (1:10,000), prepared by different independent soil scientists independently, and (ii) compare these with a soil map obtained by the DSM technique. For this purpose, we used a study area of 182 ha cultivated with sugar cane in the municipality of Rafard (SP). The same information was provided to the soil scientists: a geological map anda a semi-detailed pedological map (both scale 1:100,000), planialtimetric map and aerial photographs (both scale 1:10,000). Field trips, results of analysis and examination soil profiles were performed as deemed necessary. The information for the digital soil map included terrain attributes (elevation, slope, stream power, LS factor, plan and profile curvature), calculated from the digital elevation model generated based on the topographic map, and data reflectance of the surface soil of a satellite image Landsat 5 (TM sensor) obtained in the period that ground was bare. Such information has been summarized by principal component analysis, and subsequently made a subdivision of the area using Fuzzy K-means analysis. Observations were made in each compartment to classify them as a mapping unit. The maps were then compared two by two, the spatial correspondence being measured for each of the four levels established in the Brazilian System of Soil Classification, and beyond the increased textural information. Both for comparisons between conventional maps, and for comparisons to the digital map, there was a reduction of spatial correspondence to the more detailed categoric levels. The longest match final (4th level + texture) occurred between conventional maps A and B (24.3%). The highest spatial correlation in relation to the digital map that occurred was between it and the map A (35.2%) and the map B (28.7%). Therefore it is confirmed that the conventional soil maps vary according to subjective criteria of the soil scientist, whose measurement is impractical. The digital soil map generated by the proposed method achieved similar rates of correspondence with the conventional maps as those obtained among these, being a good choice in the optimization process of mapping work.

Mapas de solos são essenciais para o desenvolvimento de áreas agrícolas de maneira economicamente viável e ambientalmente correta. Até o momento, o Brasil conta apenas com mapas de solos de escala pequena (1:250.000 a 1:1.000.000), cuja utilização é limitada para planejamento agrícola e ambiental a nível de propriedade rural. Apesar de sua importância, no Brasil poucos mapeamentos têm sido realizados pelos órgãos públicos competentes, principalmente por restrições orçamentárias e falta de pedólogos. Além disso, o 5º e 6º níveis categóricos do Sistema Brasileiro de Classificação de Solos (SiBCS), que devem ser utilizados em levantamentos detalhados, não estão definidos. Dessa forma, pouco se sabe a respeito da qualidade/similaridade dos mapas desse nível que vem sendo executados no país. Os principais motivos para essa situação são: elevado custo, mão-de-obra e tempo requeridos nos trabalhos de mapeamento. Uma alternativa para redução desses entraves é o mapeamento digital de solos (MDS). Sendo assim, objetivou-se: (i) comparar quatro mapas de solos convencionais de uma mesma área complexa, de mesma escala (1:10.000), elaborados por diferentes pedólogos de maneira independente, e (ii) comparar estes com um mapa de solos obtido por técnica de MDS. Para tanto, utilizou-se uma área de estudo de 182 ha, cultivada com cana-de-açúcar, localizada no município de Rafard (SP). Foram fornecidas aos pedólogos as mesmas informações: mapas geológico e pedológico semidetalhado (ambos escala 1:100.000), mapa planialtimétrico e fotografias aéreas (ambos escala 1:10.000). Viagens a campo, resultados de análise e exame de perfis foram realizados conforme estes julgaram necessário. Para o mapa digital de solos foram utilizados atributos de terreno (elevação, declividade, poder de fluxo dágua, fator LS, plano e perfil de curvatura), calculados a partir do modelo digital de elevação gerado com base no mapa planialtimétrico, e informação espectral superficial do solo de uma imagem de satélite Landsat 5 (sensor TM) obtida em período que a superfície do solo estava desnuda. Tais informações foram sintetizadas através da análise por componentes principais, sendo posteriormente feita uma compartimentação da área com auxílio da análise Fuzzy K-médias. Nos compartimentos foram realizadas observações para classificá-los como unidades de mapeamento. Os mapas foram então comparados dois a dois, sendo medida a correspondência espacial para cada um dos quatro níveis categóricos estabelecidos no SiBCS, e além destes acrescida a informação textural. Tanto para as comparações entre mapas convencionais, quanto para comparações com o mapa digital, houve redução da correspondência espacial para os níveis categóricos mais detalhados. A maior correspondência final (4º nível + textura) entre mapas convencionais se deu entre os mapas A e B (24,3 %). As maiores correspondências espaciais em relação ao mapa digital se deram entre este e o mapa A (35,2 %) e o mapa B (28,7 %). Portanto confirma-se que os mapas de solos convencionais variam conforme critérios subjetivos do executor, cuja mensuração é impraticável. O mapa de solos digital gerado pela metodologia proposta obteve índices de correspondência aos mapas convencionais semelhantes aos obtidos entre estes, sendo uma boa opção no processo de otimização dos trabalhos de mapeamento. / Soil maps are essential for the development of agricultural areas in an economically viable and environmentally friendly manner. So far, Brazil only has soil maps of small scale (1:250,000 to 1:1,000,000), whose use is limited to agricultural and environmental planning at the farm. Despite its importance, in Brazil a few mappings have been carried out by public authorities, primarily because budget constraints and lack of soil scientists. In addition, 5 and 6 categorical levels of the Brazilian System of Soil Classification (SiBCS), which should be used for detailed surveys, are not defined. Thus, little is known about the quality and level of similarity of the maps that have been undertaken in the country. The main reasons for this situation are: high cost, manpower and time required of mapping. An alternative to reducing these barriers is the digital soil mapping (DSM). Therefore, the objectives were to: (i) compare four conventional soil maps of the same complex area of the same scale (1:10,000), prepared by different independent soil scientists independently, and (ii) compare these with a soil map obtained by the DSM technique. For this purpose, we used a study area of 182 ha cultivated with sugar cane in the municipality of Rafard (SP). The same information was provided to the soil scientists: a geological map anda a semi-detailed pedological map (both scale 1:100,000), planialtimetric map and aerial photographs (both scale 1:10,000). Field trips, results of analysis and examination soil profiles were performed as deemed necessary. The information for the digital soil map included terrain attributes (elevation, slope, stream power, LS factor, plan and profile curvature), calculated from the digital elevation model generated based on the topographic map, and data reflectance of the surface soil of a satellite image Landsat 5 (TM sensor) obtained in the period that ground was bare. Such information has been summarized by principal component analysis, and subsequently made a subdivision of the area using Fuzzy K-means analysis. Observations were made in each compartment to classify them as a mapping unit. The maps were then compared two by two, the spatial correspondence being measured for each of the four levels established in the Brazilian System of Soil Classification, and beyond the increased textural information. Both for comparisons between conventional maps, and for comparisons to the digital map, there was a reduction of spatial correspondence to the more detailed categoric levels. The longest match final (4th level + texture) occurred between conventional maps A and B (24.3%). The highest spatial correlation in relation to the digital map that occurred was between it and the map A (35.2%) and the map B (28.7%). Therefore it is confirmed that the conventional soil maps vary according to subjective criteria of the soil scientist, whose measurement is impractical. The digital soil map generated by the proposed method achieved similar rates of correspondence with the conventional maps as those obtained among these, being a good choice in the optimization process of mapping work.

fair trade is a business model approach that pretends to enhance the access to progress opportunities for rural populations through an empowering framework that supports small producers’ organizations and encourages investment decisions that improve welfare and sustainable development in their own communities. The values and practices underlying fair-trading emphasize a greater sensitivity on the conditions of small growers. The model integrates good agricultural practices, environmental stewardship, organizational transparency, empowerment, participative democracy, economic incentives and technology transfer in an alternative trade framework with the specific purpose of improving the income of rural producers of agricultural goods in developing countries. The most distinctive mechanism fair trade models use to improve the income of these producers is the direct payment of a minimum sales price to the farmer, which is at least equal to the market price. In exchange for this price security, the farmer commits to environmentally sound and socially responsible production practices. The main objective of this document is to provide a model for a handbook for small producers and organizations in Colombia interested in fair trade certification schemes. The paper collects relevant information for producers and organizations starting from an introduction of the fair trade system and the different labeling alternatives available in the market. It also provides general information about the background of the rural population in Colombia, useful for other audiences like researchers, and project leaders. In addition to explaining how the world’s leading fair trade labeling organization works and the procedure to obtain a certificate from them, the paper suggests screening and organizational-fitness tests intended to help interested producers and organizations to identify the suitability of the system to their own needs and detect internal strengths and weaknesses in relation to the specific certification requirements. The core of the document is a detailed analysis and compilation of the relevant compliance criteria producers and organizations must meet in order to become certificate holders and retain the certificate successfully. The standards set by the labeling body chosen for this work are paired to the compliance requirements of the respective auditing organization, local legal demands and practical guidance for compliance. The analysis is based on fair trade certification case studies, literature review and interviews with fair trade certified producers and experienced certification consultants in Colombia. Relevant local legislation and further informative documents for applicants are included in the Annexes. Its productive and demographic structure makes of fair trade schemes a relevant model for Colombia, a net producer and exporter of agricultural products. Production and trade patterns in Colombia, in combination with relentless land ownership concentration and inequality call for the implementation of alternative strategies with the potential of improving income in the short term; and strengthening capacity building, enhancing negotiation power of small farmers’ organizations and developing their skills for agro-business management in the long term.