Women have been historically written out of human achievement. This is especially true in organized conservation. Historical analyses of the Progressive conservation era and the period following to the New Deal have understated women's organized participation in conservation. Through an analysis of Women's Clubs' records, newspapers, and magazines from 1900-1932, Arizona clubwomen's activities regarding natural resources are examined. The clubwomen are found to have been mutually and simultaneously supportive of conservation, preservation, civic improvement, nature study, and recreation--antagonistic issues at differing times. They reconciled those conflicts by advocating management solutions based upon resource renewability. Behind a shield of patriotism, maternalism, and housekeeping, the clubwomen used resource conservation to encourage a healthy future for humans and the environment. Conservation also served to advance their status as women through community service and self-education.

I determined reliable methods for monitoring Sonoran populations of the desert tortoise. Tortoises were significantly clumped (p < 0.001) on three 1-mi² plots in Arizona, but were not significantly different from random (p > 0.05) on a 1-km² plot, supporting the use of smaller plots in mark-recapture population studies. Simulations showed that Program CAPTURE's Jackknife and Darroch estimators are robust to variations in capturability, which confound most commonly used estimators (e.g., Lincoln-Petersen). Mean capturability determines which estimator is most appropriate for a given population. These methods were applied to data from several tortoise populations. CAPTURE's Jackknife method estimated 70 tortoises/km² in a Mazatzal Mountain, Arizona, population surveyed during 1992. Density was corrected with the mean maximum distance moved method. Regression of CAPTURE estimates indicated two separate populations were stable or increasing from 1990 to 1992, while a third declined. Program JOLLY estimated high survivorship for these three populations (87-100%), but recruitment was lowest for the decreasing population (0-17 tortoises/year).

Brown and rainbow trout perennially dominated Bright Angel Creek; native species (flannelmouth and bluehead suckers) generally occurred only during spawning (March and April-May, respectively) and initial rearing of juveniles (bluehead sucker only). Flannelmouth suckers spawned at depths between 20-40 cm, currents between 0.4-0.8 m/sec, and over loosely compacted substrates (gravel, rock). Speckled dace abundance had markedly decreased since previous investigations, possibly due to brown trout becoming the dominant predator in the stream. Four native and 6 non-native species were taken in Kanab Creek; spawning was documented for bluehead sucker and speckled dace. Small bluehead suckers (160 mm) were perennial residents below a barrier 6.2 km above the mouth. Larger individuals (>200 mm) were absent in winter, but spawned in the lower 3.2 km of the stream in April and early May. Bluehead suckers spawned in shallow waters (25 cm), slow currents (0.25 m/sec), and over loosely compacted substrates (pebble, gravel).

The purpose of this study was to assess the correlation between (1) selected seedling conditions and (2) the participating farmers' knowledge of planting techniques and the seedling mortality of trees supplied by the Pan American Development Foundation's Agroforestry Outreach Project in Haiti. During the spring of 1990 planting season, 18 sample farmers and the trees they received were studied to determine the correlation of several seedling conditions with seedling mortality. Rootball condition, leaf drop, plant turgor, and internal box temperature were measured during seedling transportation from nursery to the field. The farmers' knowledge of planting techniques was determined by a test over a planting guide. The most significant findings were that the seedling mortality was not strongly correlated to either the individual conditions measured or the farmers' knowledge of planting techniques. Collectively, these seedling conditions accounted for approximately 25 percent of the total variation in the seedling mortality.

Reproductive success and survival of birds often are impractical to measure. Therefore, biologists frequently rely on measures of bird abundance alone to evaluate habitat quality for breeding birds. I examined whether results from standard survey techniques for birds during the breeding season reflected number of nesting pairs and reproductive success of 5 passerine species. Abundance of 3 species was positively associated with number of nesting pairs, but the relationship between abundance and reproductive success varied among these species. Differences in detectability of breeding males may partly explain why abundance and number of nesting pairs were related in some species and not in others. Variations in the availability and quality of habitat patches among plots could produce the different relationships I observed between abundance and reproductive success. My results suggest that measures of reproductive success as well as abundance should be used to determine habitat quality for breeding birds.

The stability of lower treeline in the southwestern United States has been the subject of recent debate. An understanding of seed predation and dispersal is required to evaluate these predictions. Experimental plots were established along the oak woodland/semi-desert grassland boundary to investigate seed predation and dispersal of emory oak, a common lower treeline species. An aviary experiment investigated acorn selection by grey-breasted jays, important emory oak seed dispersers. I found sufficient acorn dispersal for emory oak recruitment in adjacent grassland, and that seed predation does not limit oak recruitment in adjacent grasslands; in fact, acorns dispersed into adjacent grasslands are more likely to escape predation. I determined that grey-breasted jays select and cache acorns in a manner favorable to oak recruitment. Taken collectively, these studies and other research into emory oak life history stages illustrate mechanisms by which rapid downslope shifts in lower treeline can occur.

Ecologists suspect that owls select specific areas based on prey availability. My objective was to determine and compare distributions and abundances of Mexican spotted owl prey species' within different vegetation types in the canyons and mesas of the Manti-LaSal National Forest in Utah. I conducted live-trapping during summer and fall, 1994-95. Woodrat species (Neotoma spp.) are the Mexican spotted owls primary prey species as determined by percent biomass. Peromyscus spp. are also important in terms of frequency. Woodrats were only captured in the canyons and were primarily captured within the pinyon (Pinus spp.) - juniper (Juniperus spp.) vegetation type. The Mexican spotted owls in southeastern Utah spend >75% of their time within the canyons and forage within pinyon-juniper stands in the canyons. Maintaining the present state of pinyon-juniper stands within the canyons may benefit Mexican spotted owl populations in the Manti-LaSal National Forest.

I used enclosures with exits for emigration to test whether house mice could regulate their numbers by emigration to two levels of resources. Exits had a water obstacle likley to be crossed only by true emigrants. Enclosures had excess food and water and the number of shelters was held constant. I introduced a pair of mice into enclosures about every other night, until no more would become residents. I ran 7 trials in single enclosures and 8 in double enclosures (2 single enclosures joined with a tunnel). The number of mice that stayed within a given size enclosure was consistant, and was 2.3 times higher in double enclosures than in single enclosures. Weather, predation, starvation, and disease did not act in any trials. My data support the contention that house mice can control their population numbers through spacing and emigration.

Encroachment of woody plants has occurred in many of the world's grasslands within the past 3 centuries. Mechanisms underlying these physiognomic shifts have not been adequately described. My objectives were to elucidate the roles of interference, herbivory, acorn maturation date and timing of precipitation on emergence and survival of Emory oak (Quercus emoryi Torr.) at lower treeline; and to evaluate how different frequencies of monitoring influence the results of demographic studies with woody plants. Seedling emergence was negatively affected by delays in precipitation and decreased soil moisture content. Seedling survival was negatively affected by overstory and understory interference and vertebrate herbivory. Most seedling mortality was attributed to desiccation. Woody plants should be monitored at least monthly to evaluate emergence and survival after one year. These results indicate that abiotic constraints are the primary factors structuring southwestern oak woodlands and savannas.

I monitored and recorded human activities in bighorn sheep habitat to determine the role of human activity in the decline of an indigenous population of bighorn sheep in the Pusch Ridge Wilderness, Santa Catalina Mountains, Arizona. I recorded hiker activity, sound levels, presence of dogs, and hunting activity in off-trail areas of bighorn sheep habitat from June 1995 to June 1996. Eighteen percent of hiker-groups entering the study area hiked off-trails in bighorn sheep habitat, and 8% were accompanied by dogs. Although I observed very little hunting activity in the area, noise disturbance may be a factor in the decline of the population. The cumulative affect of these and other activities probably contributed to the decline of the herd.