I argue in this dissertation, that alternative agriculture offers an epistemological challenge to the conventional approach to food production. To put it succinctly: alternative agriculture is not just about another way to grow; it's about another way to know. I test this hypothesis through an examination of the discourses of three of the more organized networks in U.S. alternative agriculture: biodynamics, organics and ecoagriculture. These networks have supported research, education and outreach activities around alternative agriculture for decades. I focus on people and institutions of the U.S. Midwest. Bruno Latour's actor-networks and his "circulatory" model of the process of "science-making" provide me with a method for analyzing the creation of alternative knowledge by these groups, from their founders to the present. This research relies on writing by Foucault and Latour as well as by agricultural geographers to inform an investigation into the alternative knowledge networks, with a focus on the discourse of soil fertility. The definition and use of science in core texts provides a central thread for the analysis, which sheds light on how different groups claim and defend territories of agricultural knowledge, and construct their arguments about soil in alternative production. I analyze the identification and labeling of material nature, as well as specific technologies developed to do this work. I also examine criteria for, and evaluation of, experts as well as how people build alliances with other scientists and with a larger public, and how they argue for the importance of their scientific contributions. Although these networks all produce arguments for "following nature," they offer radically different perspectives on what nature consists of, and different frameworks and technologies for working with it. I also juxtapose this discourse analysis with an analysis of the public discourse and regulatory language of the federal standard regulating organic production---the Organic Farm Production Act of 1990, controversy around which prevented it from being implemented until 2002. This comparison sheds light on some of the specific challenges presented to mainstream production and conventional agricultural science by alternative agriculture, and on the process by which some alternative ideas become mainstream.

A comparative study was performed to identify personal characteristics and motivation of volunteer leaders from two youth groups; 4-H and Campfire. Criteria under study were appraised using questionnaires. Data analysis based on the responses obtained from 64 volunteer leaders. The personal characteristics investigated included expected period of service, support and encouragement, time spent on volunteer activities, satisfaction from service rendered, enrollment of volunteer leaders children, place of residence, length of residence, educational level, employment status, age, gender, and ethnicity. Affiliation, achievement, and power motivation factors were assessed. Most of the personal characteristics investigated were determined to be similar in the two groups. Major differences were found in the place of residence and tenure period. Youth leaders in both groups responded to the motivation inventory in a similar manner, although the two groups originated in rural and urban environments. The 4-H and Campfire volunteer leaders were highly achievement and affiliation motivated.

Airborne multispectral video was evaluated as a tool for obtaining urban land cover information for hydrological simulations. Land cover data was obtained for a small urban watershed in Tucson, Arizona using four methods: multispectral aerial video (2 meter and 4 meter pixel resolution), National High Altitude Photography (NHAP), multispectral satellite imagery from Systeme Pour l'Observation de la Terre (SPOT), and by conventional survey. A semi-automated land cover classification produced four classes: vegetation, buildings, pavement, and bare soil. The land cover data from each classification was used as input to a runoff simulation model. Runoff values generate by each simulation were compared to observed runoff. A chi-square goodness-of-fit test indicated that SPOT produced landcover data most similar to the conventional classification. In the curve number model, the SPOT data produced simulated runoff values most similar to observed runoff.

Arizona apple producers compete with Washington for fresh apple markets. As Arizona's apple production increases, its market share should also increase. Using quadratic programming to determine the spatial equilibrium between the wholesale markets of Los Angeles and Denver, the timing and quantity of apple sales from Arizona to these two wholesale markets are determined for current and potential fresh apple production in Arizona. The quadratic programming model is used to determine the feasibility of controlled atmosphere storage for Arizona. The quantity of apples sold monthly to Los Angeles and Denver wholesale markets are determined given restrictions on the percentage of the wholesale markets that Arizona apple producers could supply. Revenue from controlled atmosphere storage exceeds the variable costs associated with storage, marketing, and storage of apples.

Previous variability studies in both U.S. and worldwide agriculture have indicated that crop production has been accompanied by increasing variation. In this research, four different variability indexes were estimated in order to evaluate the production variability associated with the major Arizona field crops. Results show that major Arizona field crops, which are all irrigated, did not have a uniform production variability over the last 24 years and the variability of these crops did not generally increase between the periods of 1967-1978 and 1979-1990. Although biological factors (e.g. pests, weather) influenced variability, the variation of crop production measures over time also was related to market factors (e.g. prices), government farm programs, producers' crop management experience, and the geographical area selected for the analysis. Crops covered by government farm programs usually varied more in harvested acreage and fluctuated less in yield per acre than vegetable crops.

<p> Tillage is the common practice for seedbed preparation prior to early spring vegetables. To investigate the possibility of eliminating the need for spring tillage through the use of cover crops, spring seedbed characteristics after winterkilled cover crops forage radish (Raphanus sativus L.) and oat (Avena sativa L.) were monitored prior to and during growth of no-till and rototilled plantings of spinach (Spinacia oleracea var. Tyee) over four site years in Maryland's Coastal Plain and Piedmont regions. Results indicate that forage radish can facilitate no-till planting of spring vegetables in the mid-Atlantic without herbicides or fertilizer. Forage radish increases soil nitrate and sulfate in early spring and is best suited as a cover crop before the earliest planted main crops.</p>

<p> Various models of density dependence predicted different evolutionary outcomes for <i>Helicoverpa zea, Diabrotica virgifera,</i> and <i> Ostrinia nubilalis</i> using simple and complex resistance evolution models, different dose assumptions and refuge proportions. Increasing available refuge increased durabilities of pyramided Plant-Incorporated-Protectants (PIPs), especially between 1&ndash;5%. For some models of density dependence and pests, additional refuge resulted in faster adaptation rates. Significant considerations should be given to a pest's intra-specific competition in simple and complex theoretical models when designing insect resistance management plans. </p><p> Life-history, refuge, and dose characteristics of a PIP had different effects on the adaptation rate of a generic pest of Bt, and unexpected outcomes occurred. Intrinsic growth rate 'R₀' was the strongest evolutionary force, and large R₀'s reduced time to resistance for a high dose PIP to similar levels as projected for a low dose PIP. This was caused by differential density dependent effects in refuge and Bt fields that elevated generational resistance increases beyond those from selection alone. Interactions between density dependence and R₀ were always present and further affected the life-time of the PIPs. Varying 'average dispersal distance' did not affect evolutionary outcomes; however, increasing the proportion of the population engaging in dispersal often increased the durability of high dose PIPs. When resistance genes spread from a hypothetical hotspot, local resistance phenomena developed in the immediate surroundings. Higher growth rates lead resistance to spread faster through the landscape than lower rates. Increasing available refuges slowed adaptation rates to single PIPs and low dose pyramids, although non-linear trends were possible. </p><p> Integrated Pest Management (IPM) practices at the onset of PIP commercialization slowed pest adaptation rates. For corn rootworm, interspersing non-selective periods with IPM+IRM delayed resistance evolution, yet crop rotation was the best strategy to delay resistance. For bollworm inclusion of isoline corn as an IPM tool did not increase the life-time of the PIP. A local resistance phenomenon for rootworm was maintained immediately surrounding the hotspot; random selection of mitigatory strategies in the landscape slowed adaptation rates while mitigation in the hotspot alone did not. Mitigation extended the life-time of the pyramid minimally for both corn rootworm and bollworm.</p>

<p> Alkali bees, <i>Nomia melanderi</i>, are native, solitary, soil&ndash;nesting bees commercially managed in southeastern Washington State. They nest in dense aggregations and are important pollinators of alfalfa produced for seed. The Washington State Department of Transportation (WSDOT) proposed safety improvements to US Highway 12 through the Touchet&ndash; Lowden&ndash;Gardena alfalfa seed growing district, an area critical to alfalfa seed production. This includes northern realignment to accommodate a wider roadway and avoid impacting any towns. Relocation of the highway will bisect several <i> N. melanderi</i> nesting aggregations and alfalfa fields. The study has three objectives: 1) survey the population abundance of <i>N. melanderi </i> across the region by comparing two sampling techniques; 2) determine bee flight heights across roads; and 3) determine <i>N. melanderi</i> foraging range using transgenic pollen. </p><p> Regression was significant between the two population sampling methods. Mean emergence hole counts, mean prepupal counts, and the surface area of the nesting aggregations, were used to estimate the abundance of<i> N. melanderi</i> in each bee bed. We constructed a &ldquo;vehicular bee sweeper&rdquo; designed to capture insects at specific heights over the roadway. The majority of <i>N. melanderi</i> flew below 2.1 m when no other factors were considered, but environmental conditions like temperature and wind speed affected number and flight height of <i>N. melanderi</i>. To determine <i>N. melanderi</i> foraging distance, adults were collected from their nest sites, and pollen on their hind tibia was tested for the presence or absence of Roundup&ndash;^&reg;Ready alfalfa (RRA). The minimum foraging distance was 0.04 km and the maximum was 4.62 km. These distances suggest that <i>N. melanderi</i> will cross the highway for floral resources, increasing potential mortality. </p><p> Studying <i>N. melanderi</i> population abundance and flight characteristics allows us to understand the potential impacts of the proposed highway on bee populations and on alfalfa seed producers. The non&ndash;destructive quadrat method of sampling <i>N. melanderi</i> populations is robust compared to the destructive, labor-intensive, soil core method. Due to the low-flying nature and foraging distance of <i>N. melanderi</i>, vehicle strikes can be expected to cause mortality in bisected populations. Ultimately, recommendations will be made to highway designers to minimize and mitigate these effects. &#8195;</p>

<p> We investigated the agricultural use of locally produced biosolids compost, the fate of the antibiotic ciprofloxacin during the composting process, community perceptions about biosolids, and sociological factors of community involvement in waste management research and decision-making. </p><p> Two biological assays were used to determine if the antibiotic ciprofloxacin selects for and amplifies ciprofloxacin-resistant bacteria during composting. A third biological assay measured the capacity of compost to adsorb ciprofloxacin from solution. Our results show that the ciprofloxacin had no selective effect on resistant populations of bacteria during composting and that the compost was capable of adsorbing and effectively neutralizing this antibiotic. </p><p> A two-year field trial was conducted to evaluate the potential of biosolids compost as a high-carbon soil amendment in local agriculture. Potatoes and small grains were grown with biosolids compost and/or synthetic fertilizer and effects on crop yield, soil fertility, and soil quality were measured. Biosolids compost increased potato tuber and grain yield in the second year, demonstrating cumulative effects of repeated compost applications. In this study, the value of biosolids compost was primarily as a source of nitrogen, plant available phosphorus, and soil organic matter. </p><p> A mail survey of 1,374 Skagit County households was conducted to gain insight into community perceptions about the use of biosolids in local agriculture, interest in using biosolids compost as a soil amendment, and desire to participate in local waste management decision-making processes. Mail survey results and participant observation were used to develop a case study of community involvement in waste management research and decision-making in the town of La Conner. </p><p> This project addressed challenges inherent in conducting research on a controversial topic while developing a new collaborative research model for the region. Scientists, public planners and biosolids managers may be able to build and improve upon what was learned here in their efforts to develop effective regional waste management solutions.</p>

The sensitivity of spring barley (Hordeum vulgare, cv. Carnival), field beans (Vicia faba, ev. Maris Bead) and sugar beet (Beta vulgaris,cv. Monoire) to topsoil compaction induced by tractor wheelings, post sowing, on a coarse gravelly loam of the Arrow series was investigated in 1983 and 1984. The study revealed that in both years topsoil compaction increased the dry bulk density, vane shear strength and cone resistance of the soil. Although compaction reduced only the plant population of sugar beet in 1983 (by 35%) in 1984 it both delayed emergence and decreased the field bean, spring barley and sugar beet populations by 41%, 50% and 64% respectively. In 1983 the order of sensitivity of crop yield to soil compaction was spring barley < field beans <sugar beet and the following year a similar trend was apparent with spring barley ≈ field beans < sugar beet. Compaction reduced the total dry matter production of field beans and sugar beet in 1983 and of all the three crops examined a year later. No clear trend could be established on the influence of soil compaction on plant nutrient uptake. The total length and distribution of roots in the soil profile was reduced in field beans (28%), spring barley (27%) and sugar beet (49%) by topsoil compaction in 1983. However, the reduced root length of spring barley was an order of magnitude greater than that of the other crops. In 1984 there was a trend for compaction to restrict the total root length of all crops throughout most of the growing season. Compaction did not restrict the maximum depth of rooting but it reduced the amount of deep roots in all crops. In 1983 and 1984, compaction restricted lateral proliferation of roots and the order of sensitivity of root distribution to soil compaction was similar to that for the sensitivity of yield: spring barley <field beans <sugar beet. The maximum effective rooting depth, as measured by neutron probe, was consistently less for field bean and sugar beet compact treatments, while the evaporation was only reduced in compact sugar beet crops. Thermocouple psychrometer data indicated that compaction had generally delayed soil drying and reduced the extent of water use in all crops in 1984. The principal effect of soil compaction on crop growth and dry matter production was to reduce the leaf area index, by an initial restriction to individual leaf size and by a reduction in plant numbers such that the fraction of light intercepted by the leaf canopy was reduced. The efficiency of conversion of photosynthetically active radiation absorbed to dry matter was not affected by soil compaction. Diurnal and seasonal plant water status was not detrimentally changed by soil compaction. It is suggested that plants adapt to adverse soil physical conditions by a reduction of leaf area expansion rather than by lowered leaf water potential. The severity of the response of crops to topsoil compaction was strongly influenced by the environment, in particular the distribution of rainfall which appeared to determine the effect of compaction on crop emergence and the ability of that crop to compensate for a low plant population. The results of this study are discussed in relation to the use of plant breeding, irrigation and management techniques in overcoming the detrimental effects of soil compaction on crop growth and development.