South Africa is a new democracy that has had to deal with many historical remnants of apartheid. One of the main remnants has been land dispossession and massive inequalities along racial lines of access to land for agricultural purposes. In countering this, the post-apartheid state has pursued land redistribution programmes since the end of apartheid in 1994, as part of a broader land reform project. Simultaneously, post-apartheid South Africa has been marked by significant state restructuring notably a process of state de-centralisation including the positioning of municipalities as development agents. Amongst other goals, this is designed to democratise the state given the authoritarian and exclusive character of the apartheid state, and thereby to democratise development initiatives and programmes. Land redistribution and state decentralisation in South Africa are different political processes with their own specific dynamics. They have though become interlinked and intertwined but not necessarily in a coherent and integrated manner. Within broader global developments pertaining to state decentralisation and land redistribution, the thesis examines the complex relations between these two processes in South Africa. In particular, I analyse critically the decentralised character of the land redistribution programme in South Africa. In order to concretise and illustrate key themes and points, I discuss a particular land redistribution project called Masizakhe located in Makana Municipality in the Eastern Cape Province.

This study assesses the challenges confronted by rural women participating in small-scale commercial farming in Tweespruit, a rural town of the Free State Province. A qualitative, descriptive and explorative study was used for the study, and data was collected using focus group discussions during August 2015. The study found that rural women farmers are extremely challenged, as they are inadequately equipped as farmers, and they do not receive adequate aid from government or other entities, to enable them to turn their form of farming from subsistence farming to a more beneficial, commercialized form of farming. As a result, the study made the following recommendations. Firstly, the government should intensify programmes and strategies aimed at assisting rural women involved in farming activities. Secondly, it should also assist these farmers with training, especially in modern farming technologies, so as to grow their business into a commercialized form of farming. Finally, it was recommended that government facilitates these farmers to obtain funding from foreign donors to further grow their business.

Goats significantly contribute towards the subsistence, economic and social livelihoods of many resource-poor farmers in developing countries, the majority of which own goats. There, however, is dearth of information on communal goat production potential and roles to the rural populace. The broad objective of the study was to evaluate production practices, constraints, production efficiency and to determine nutritional and health status of goats raised by resource-poor communal farmers in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa. Roles and management systems of goats, goat flock dynamics and, prevalence and loads of gastrointestinal infections and the nutritional status of goats in the study areas were determined. The relationships among body weight, body condition score, faecal egg counts and, haematological and biochemical profiles were also determined. Mean goat flock sizes per household were similar between the two districts studied; Amatole (14.0 ± 0.31) and Alfred Nzo (14.1 ± 1.42). Seventy-nine percent of households in Amatole and 78% in Alfred Nzo kept goats for ceremonies, such as the initiation ceremonies. Goat houses in the two districts were poorly constructed. Thirty two percent of farmers in Alfred Nzo district and 27% in Amatole district reported low buck to doe ratios, suggesting that inbreeding might have been reducing productivity of their flocks. Kid mortality had two major peaks; in May (21%) and in September (21%). Goat production potential (GPP), the proportion of mature and growing goats to the total flock size, was affected by gender of owner of goats. Goats owned by female had a significantly lower GPP value of 0.63 ± 0.015 than goats owned by male farmers (0.70 ± 0.010). Month also significantly affected GPP with the highest (P < 0.05) GPP recorded in May, June and July and the lowest in March and April. Village affected GPP with values for Nkosana and Qawukeni being significantly higher than for Mankone. Goat production potential was also higher (P < 0.05) in small flocks (0.04 ± 0.008) than in large flocks (0.02 ± 0.008). Goat production efficiency (GPE) ranged from 0.11 ± 0.193 in April to 1.55 ± 0.193 in December. The most prevalent gastrointestinal eggs were the strongyle egg type (68.4 ± 8.49 in Qawukeni and 96.1 ± 12.01 in Nkosana) followed by coccidia (53.3 ± 8.76 in Qawukeni and 68.8 ± 8.00 in Mankone). The other identified nematodes were Strongyloides and Trichostrongylus egg types. The trematodes observed were Fasciola and Paramphistomum species. High loads of strongyle eggs were observed in the hot-wet season and the post-rainy season, whilst the other egg types showed a peak in the hot-wet season only. For most of the gastrointestinal parasite eggs, prevalence was higher (P < 0.05) in the sour rangeland compared to the sweet rangeland. Higher (P < 0.05) levels of total protein (TP), globulin, aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and creatinine kinase (CK) levels were recorded in the wet than in the dry season. Body condition scores were positively correlated (P < 0.05) to albumin, body weight and packed cell volume. However, body condition scores were negatively correlated to TP, glucose, alanine transaminase (ALT) and AST. Strongyle egg loads were positively correlated to FAMACHA scores, packed cell volume, body weight and body condition score. The observed high globulin levels suggested a chronic health challenge. Thus, it is fundamental to devise affordable interventions for the control of gastrointestinal parasites in communal goats leading to improved goat productivity and hence rural livelihood

Irrigation farming is one of the most important rural development investments that can have both direct and indirect impacts on poverty and food security. The irregular and unreliable rainfall in the Eastern Cape Province has caused the smallholder farmers to deepen the irrigation farming systems as a strategy to cope with food shortage, income and poverty. South Africa has invested substantially in smallholder irrigation to benefit smallholder farmers in the less developed areas. Although the investment on small scale irrigation was to improve the welfare of the people, the performance and welfare impact of smallholder irrigation schemes has been poor and fall far short of the expectations of many stakeholders. The broad objective of the study was to examine the contribution of smallholder irrigation scheme on rural livelihoods of smallholder farmers at the project area. The null hypothesis was that smallholder irrigation schemes have no impact on farmer’s livelihoods. The alternative hypothesis for this study was that Melani irrigation scheme is contributing in improving rural livelihoods of smallholder farmers in the area. Cross study research design was used in the methodology. The purposive sampling was applied in order to choose a sample of 107 respondents that were interviewed using questionnaires, including both irrigating and non-irrigating farmers. A multiple linear regression analysis was used to find out whether the performance of the two groups of farmers is different and to what extent. To determine the specific role of irrigation an Independent T-Test was ran. Out of the selected sample 68 percent of households were farmers, 7.5 percent informal employed and 27 percent unemployed. It was found that the majority of participants were males and were uneducated. They depended on social grants for a living. The findings from the study showed that 84 percent of the respondents agreed that there is no market available in the village and farmers had limited access to credits. The crop income was the most contributing factor to household income. The results showed that whether the farmer is a non-irrigator or an irrigator the performance is not significant. Irrigation scheme improvement attained by smallholder farmers need to be maintained.

No description available.

Despite the decreasing contribution of agriculture to Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in South Africa, agricultural activities are critical in the development of rural households. These activities are an important route through which these rural communities can reduce poverty. This is mainly because agriculture has been the main source of income and employment in rural areas in South Africa and other less developed countries (LDC). However, it has not generated sufficient income to sustain rural households. Rural areas are characterised by factors such as low socio-economic conditions, low standards of living, lack of access to markets and inadequate infrastructure that does not create an enabling environment for private sector involvement. The private sector is not actively involved or engaged in rural development. Rural development involves improvement in the economic security of people in rural areas. It is poor households that look for employment in agriculture. The poor are portrayed in terms of qualifications, employment, access to resources, basic health services, skills possessed, self- sustaining activities, and income and expenditure patterns. Many individuals in rural areas are pushed into non-agricultural activities due to lack of opportunities in agricultural activities. Lack of opportunities in agriculture can be caused by subsistence agriculture in small holdings of land and lack of appropriate skills sets for certain agricultural activities. Ultimately, it is poor individuals who increase their dependence on agriculture. The primary objective of this research was to obtain a better understanding of the contribution of agriculture in rural development in the Mbhashe Local Municipality (MLM). Furthermore, the necessary conditions required to sustain livelihoods in the rural areas were identified. This was mainly done in an attempt to improve the quality of life in the rural areas. The study was based on three objectives. The first objective was to identify the constraints to agricultural activities in the Mbashe Local Municipality; the second was to investigate the plight of rural people in the Mbhashe Local Municipality. Lastly, the third objective was to investigate the contribution of agriculture in rural development in the study area. The main finding with regards to the first objective is that facors such as lack of infrastructure, low socio-economic conditions, lack of appropriate skills and lack of opportunities in agriculture are some of the constraints to agricultural activities. Investments in basic infrastructure need to be significant so that funds can flow into the rural areas to be invested in livelihood activities in order to create more employment opportunities. With regard to the second objective, the main finding is that rural people need to be empowered through increased knowledge and skills. This involves improving literacy and skills training, because the outcome of this training is that they are able to stand on their own feet and provide for their families. The main finding with regard to the third objective is that rural areas, by nature, are not easy to service but have indigenous knowledge that can be used in agriculture. However, the government must support them with the necessary infrastructure. Agriculture has been a major source of income and employment in the Mbashe Municipality.

The challenges faced by the agricultural sector especially around improving production yields using environmentally friendly solutions have received market attention. Biological intervention can range from application of biological products to enhance the nutritional value of crops or to control plant pathogens. Biostart, a biological product that demonstrated growth enhancement when applied in lettuce crops is currently in the market. The product is comprised of a consortium of bacterial isolates (Bacillus licheniformis, Brevibacillus laterosporus and Bacillus laterosporus) but the contribution of the individual isolates to growth enhancement had not been elucidated. Green house experiments on lettuce seedlings with individual and mixed treatments were commissioned to determine such contribution. There was either no or marginal growth enhancement observed in the experiments. The results showed that the product was effective as a consortium and not as individual isolates. Further isolation and screening for potential Bacilli with antifungal properties was undertaken. An isolate identified as Bacillus subtilis that demonstrated inhibition against a wide spectrum of fungi, and especially the phytopathogenic Verticillium dahliae and Fusarium oxysporum, was successfully identified. The isolate was cryo-preserved and cultivated to significant levels at bench scale. A characterized comparison of different putative products with known systematic fungicide showed potential application even of heat treated products. The product showed control V. dahliae when tested in green houses with potatoes and tomatoes as test crops. This isolate has been targeted for further development as a biological control product.

O objetivo geral da pesquisa foi avaliar a evolução dos agroecossistemas familiares, fundamentados por práticas agroecológicas na microrregião de Pato Branco – PR e o papel desempenhado pela assistência técnica e extensão rural neste processo. A fundamentação teórica consiste em conceitos de desenvolvimento sustentável e desenvolvimento rural sustentável em agroecossistemas, assistência técnica e extensão rural no contexto evolutivo e histórico. O procedimento consiste quanto aos objetivos, a pesquisa descritiva, quanto aos procedimentos, pesquisa bibliográfica, pesquisa documental e levantamento através de entrevista com cinco agricultores, com um representante do CAPA de Verê e com dois representantes da ASSESOAR de Francisco Beltrão. Principais resultados: O contexto histórico dos agroecossistemas apesar de possuir características semelhantes - ambos desenvolvem horticultura e são agricultores de caracterização familiar, atualmente apresentam-se em contexto social, econômico e organizacional de forma distinta. O agroecossistema “A”, contemplado com Assistência Técnica e Extensão Rural (ATER) de forma contínua, exclusivamente de ONGs, acessando com frequência as políticas de ATER, sendo o mais recente Pronaf Mais Alimentos; O agroecossistema “B”, com atendimento de ATER de ONGs e privada, sendo estas não contínuas, ainda aderiu ao Plano de Habitação do Campo, com a construção de uma nova residência recentemente. O Agroecossistema “C”, relatou receber orientações de ATER de ONGs e privada, porém não contínuas, atualmente não desenvolve mais a produção de hortaliças orgânicas e nunca buscou políticas de ATER Pública. O Agroecossistema “D”, relatou receber orientações de Universidade, Prefeitura, Institutos de Certificação, ONGs, atualmente não possui certificação da produção orgânica e recentemente utilizou-se da políticas de ATER, Pronaf Mais Alimentos. E, o Agroecossistema “E”, recebe ATER do SEBRAE e dos Institutos de Certificação além de ONGs, atualmente também utilizou-se do Pronaf Mais Alimentos. Portanto, verifica-se a utilização de Políticas de ATER nos agroecossistemas pesquisados, necessitando assim de novas pesquisas para verificar a eficiência da utilização das mesmas para o futuro dos mesmos. / The main purpose of this research was to evaluate the evolution of family agroecosystems supported by agroecological practices in the microregion of Pato Branco – PR, and the role developed by technical assistance and rural extension in this process. The theoretical foundation consists of sustainable development concepts and rural sustainable development in agroecosystems, technical assistances and rural extension in the evolutionary and historical context. The procedure, concerning the objectives, consists in a descriptive research, concerning the methods, consists in a bibliographical and desk research and a survey based on interviews with five farmers, one representative of Verê’s CAPA and two Francisco Beltrão’s ASSESOAR representatives. Main results: The historical context of agroecosystems, although having similar characteristics – all develop horticulture and they are farmers with family farming characterization - currently present in different social, economical and organizational context. The agroecosystem “A”, sustained continuously with Technical Assistance and Rural Extension (TARE) from NGOs exclusively, often accessing the TARE policies, the most recent being the Pronaf Mais Alimentos; Agroecosystem “B”, assisted with private and NGOs TARE, but not continuously, joined also the Field Housing Plan, building a new residence recently. Agroecosystem “C” reported that they received guidance of private and NGOs TARE, also not continuously, currently they don’t develop the production of organic vegetables anymore and never searched for TARE Public policy. Agroecosystem “D” reported that they received orientation from the University, City Hall representatives, Certification Institutes and NGOs, until now they do not have organic production certification and just recently applied one of the TARE policy, Pronaf Mais Alimentos. Finally, agroecosystem “E” receives TARE from SEBRAE and Certification Institutes, also NGOs, currently used the Pronaf Mais Alimentos. Therefore, it is possible to establish the use of TARE policies in the agroecosystems surveyed, then, new studies are needed to verify the efficiency in TARE application to the future of these agroecosystems.

M.A. / Die gewilde media skep die persepsie dat arbeid in die Iandbousektor ten gunste van meganisasie afgeskaal word. Die navorsingsvraag wat hieruit voortgespruit het, is die volgende: wat is die invloed van omgewingsveranderlikes op die werkskeppingspotensiaal van die Iandbousektor? Meganisasie word nie hier gesien as die veranderlike wat direk aanleiding gee tot die afname van werkgeleenthede in die Iandbousektor nie, maar dat Iaasgenoemde eerder die gevoig van bepaalde omgewingsveranderlikes soos onder andere, onlangse arbeidswetgewing is. Arbeidswetgewing word hier dus gesien as die oorsaak van 'n verlaging in die werkskeppingspotensiaal van die Iandbousektor terwyl meganisasie gesien word as die metode waardeur die Iandbousektor in reaksie op die arbeidswetgewing poog om sy ekonomiese oorlewing te verseker. 'n Newe effek hiervan is noodwendig 'n verlaagde werkskeppingspotensiaal in dielandbousektor. Gedurende die regeringstermyn van die huidige regering, is daar abeids- en ander wetgewing op die Iandbousektor van toepassing gemaak wat die vraag Iaat ontstaan wat die impak van hierdie soort veranderinge in die taakomgewing van die Iandbou-organisasie op die werkskeppingspotensiaal van hierdie sektor gaan wees. 'n Hipotese-stelling is soos voig geformuleer: 'n verandering in die taakomgewing van 'n organisasie, in hierdie geval die Suid-Afrikaanse Landbousektor, gaan noodwendig tot gevoig he dat die organisasie veranderinge sal moet aanbring om te kan oorleef. Hierdie veranderinge word geantisipeer in die rigting van 'n verlaging van die werkskeppingspotensiaal van die betrokke organisasie, in hierdie geval die landbousektor, te wees. Verandering is in die arbeids- en ander wetgewing wat op die landbousektor van toepassing is, aangebring. Daar word ook na ander invloede, soos misdaad, grondhervorming en klimatologiese veranderinge gekyk, om te bepaal of al hierdie faktore gesamentlik aanleiding gee tot die verlaging in die werk-skeppingspotensiaal van die landbousektor.

Submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Public Administration: Peace Studies, Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa, 2017. / This study was conducted between November 2015 and March 2016 in Nakivale Refugee Settlement, one of the oldest and largest refugee settlements in Africa. The objectives of the study were to determine the forms and causes of land conflicts in the refugee settlement; to establish the relationship between land conflicts and food security in the Settlement; to identify the strategies refugees adopt to cope with land shortage and food insecurity problems in the Settlement; to establish the residents’ perceptions of the effectiveness of interventions aimed at mitigating land conflicts and enhancing food security in the Settlement and its host communities. Interest in the study arose out of the reported persistence of food insecurity and land conflicts despite efforts to ensure food security and restore peace and security in the refugee settlement and the host communities. The study used exploratory, analytical and descriptive research designs to obtain qualitative primary data. Secondary data was obtained through documentary review. Primary data was collected using interviews, focus group discussion and observation. The study found that land conflicts involve the destruction of crops, livestock and even human lives and they sometimes culminate in costly legal battles in courts of law. They pit the Settlement Commandant against Ugandans in the Settlement, pastoralists against cultivators, pastoralists against pastoralists, cultivators against cultivators, refugees against Ugandans and refugees against refugees. The conflicts also oppose host communities against refugees, conservationists against encroachers on protected land and Ugandans in the Settlement against the government. The study also found the causes to be land-grabbing and fraudulent acquisition of, or claims on, land by unscrupulous people, encroachment on others’ land and protected land, high population growth, the presence of vacant land in the Settlement, competition over increasingly scarce land by cultivators and pastoralists, ambiguous settlement boundaries, contested land ownership, jealousy and antipathy. The study further established that there is a strong positive relationship between land conflicts and food insecurity. Violent land conflicts lead to the maiming and death of farmers, destruction of crops and livestock and deterrence of potential agricultural investors from investing in agriculture, thus lowering food production and increasing food insecurity. Land conflicts also render disputed land idle and therefore unproductive, leading to reduced food production; and, within families, land conflicts lead to land fragmentation which leads to reduced food production and increased food scarcity. Regarding refugee coping mechanisms, the study found that refugees in Nakivale resorted to both positive and negative coping mechanisms. Positive coping mechanisms include establishing small businesses, rural-urban migration, farming, education and resettlement, intermarriage, paid employment, and psychosocial support. Others were: borrowing money, casual labour, networking, remittances, spirituality and religion. Negative mechanisms include: cheating the system and self-integration, prostitution, early marriage, drug abuse, theft and robbery. The study also found that interventions in land conflicts in the Settlement were unsuccessful due to corruption and limited involvement of the beneficiaries. The challenges of implementing refugee policy in the Settlement were identified as limited funding, inadequate coordination and consultation between the district and settlement authorities, xenophobia and an increasing refugee population with insatiable demands. The study recommends the following: demarcation of the boundaries of the Settlement; relocation of some refugees to other settlements in the country; housing scheme for both refugees and nationals in the Settlement to enable everyone to live decently; affordable loans for both refugees and Nationals in the Settlement; introduction of plot numbers to resolve land conflicts among refugees; a structural plan for the Settlement; mechanization of agriculture in the Settlement and increased provision of farming inputs, such as fertilisers to all farmers in the Settlement; coordinated and participatory planning between settlement and district authorities, involving refugees and Nationals. / D