Stepped cascades are recognised for both aeration potential and energy dissipation, and have been employed in hydraulic structures for over 3,500 years. Yet little detailed information exists on their performance, especially pertaining to low-gradient cascades. This study presents a detailed investigation of both the macro and micro-scale flow properties on a low-gradient cascade (3.4º slope). Research is conducted on two large-size physical models: a 24m long multi-step cascade (10× 2.4m long steps), and a single-step model with identical step height and length. The large size of the model allows near full-scale data acquisition under controlled flow conditions, minimising potential scale effects. The study comprises three distinct components: 1. A global investigation of the general flow properties of nappe flow on a low-gradient, multi-step cascade. Unforeseen three-dimensional characteristics of the flow, including supercritical shockwaves and sidewall standing-waves downstream of nappe impact, are identified and examined by the study. Although comparable to similar phenomena at channel bends and expansions, these have not been previously described on stepped cascades. Energy dissipation on the cascade is investigated, and is found to be over twice that observed for a smooth chute of similar gradient. 2. A complete characterisation of the air-water structure of flow in a nappe regime. Significant outcomes of the analysis include: ⊕ Air-concentration Distribution: The air-concentration distribution at the lower nappe of the free-falling jet shows good agreement with an analytical solution of the diffusion equation. The experimental results from the study, and a reanalysis of existing data, indicate a distinct relationship between the turbulent diffusivity in the shear layer and distance from the step brink. This contradicts earlier investigations that assumed constant diffusivity. Strong aeration of the flow, with a large volume of spray, occurs downstream of the nappe impact. Depth-averaged air concentrations of 40% to 50% are observed within the spray region, decreasing towards the downstream end of the step. ⊕ Velocity Distribution: A theoretical analysis of the momentum transfer process imparts an improved understanding of the momentum transfer and velocity redistribution within the free-falling jet. An analytical solution based on twodimensional wake flow is developed, superseding existing solutions based upon a monophase free-mixing layer. ⊕ Bubble-frequency Distribution: A quasi-parabolic relationship between bubble frequency and time-average air concentration across a cross-section is observed. A theoretical explanation for the parabolic relationship is developed, and two correction factors are introduced to provide a better representation of the experimental data. ⊕ Air-bubble and Water-droplet Size Distributions: Chord-length distributions are compared with standard probability distributions, showing good agreement with standard Weibull, gamma and log-normal probability distributions within various regions of the flow on the step. A computer model is developed to model interaction between a bubbly transition from water to air and fluctuations of the free surface. 3. A parallel investigation of the oxygen aeration efficiency of a stepped cascade. Measured air-water property data is used to calculate the air-water interface area in bubbly flow, and to estimate the theoretical aeration efficiency of the stepped cascade based upon the integration of the mass transfer equation. The aeration performance of the stepped cascade model is also measured experimentally in terms of dissolved oxygen content. This analysis allows a unique, successful comparison of experimental dissolved oxygen measurements with the numerical integration of the mass transfer equation.

Orientador: Ana Ines Borri Genovez / Tese (doutorado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Engenharia Civil, Arquitetura e Urbanismo / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-09T18:19:12Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Ferreira_LauraMariaCanno_D.pdf: 6902999 bytes, checksum: 3e1f02a65f335b50df38d55fa7ab47bd (MD5) Previous issue date: 2007 / Resumo: Estruturas de queda com poços verticais podem ser utilizadas para drenagem urbana, dissipação de energia e como vertedores em barragens. No último caso, tem-se os vertedores com emboque tipo tulipa, formados por um perfil vertedor seguido de um poço vertical, que se liga a um túnel por meio de uma curva. A curva é um ponto crítico do dimensionamento do vertedor, pois, é onde o escoamento o deflete, causando elevadas pressões na sua parte convexa e subpressões na parte côncava. Este trabalho tem, como objetivo, o estudo experimental de um vertedor tipo tulipa, para definir uma melhor geometria para a curva de ligação poço-túnel. Um estudo experimental foi feito, empregando-se o modelo do vertedor de Paraitinga, em escala 1:51,02, utilizando novas geometrias para a curva, para avaliar as pressões e o arraste de ar. Pôde constatar-se a nfluência da geometria da curva, sendo que as novas curvas resultaram em um escoamento mais regular, acompanhando o traçado da curva, com pressões menores na parte convexa, além de uma maior vazão de afogamento do vertedor. Foram propostas equações para o cálculo da vazão de ar em função da concentração média do ar no escoamento. Através do estudo experimental comparativo entre as diferentes curvas se sugere o emprego da curva clotóide para ser usada na ligaçao poço-túnel / Abstract: Vertical dropshafts can be used in drainage systems, energy dissipator and as dam spillways. In this case, they are called morning glory, and consists of an inlet followed by a shaft which joins a tunnel through a bend. The bend is a critical point in spillway sizing, therefore the flow deflects in this region and causes high pressures in the convex part of the bend and negative pressures in the concavous part. This paper cares for the experimental study to define a better geometry for the shaft spillway vertical bend. An experimental study has been carried out, using the spillway model of Paraitinga dam, which scale was 1:51,02, using new bend geometries, to evaluate pressures flow and air entrainment. The influence of the bend geometry has been noticed, and the new curves resulted in a more regular flow, that followed the trace of the curve, with smaller pressures in the convex part, besides a higher flow to submerge the spillway. Equations have been proposed to calculate air entrainment flow as a function of the average concentration of air. Through the experimental study to compare the different curves, one suggest the use of use clotóide curve, as a bend shaft / Doutorado / Recursos Hidricos / Doutor em Engenharia Civil

This thesis presents two important contributions to the modeling of entrainment of air bubbles in water, with focus on ship hydrodynamics applications. The first contribution consists of a general framework for modeling turbulent air entrainment. The framework attempts to describe the evolution of bubbles from their formation at the free surface, size distribution changes due to breakup and coalescence, and rise due to buoyancy. This proposed framework describes the complex entrainment process as a series of simpler mechanisms which can be modeled independently. For each mechanism a simple but mechanistic model is developed to provide closure while leaving the door open for future improvements. These unique characteristics enable the entrainment model to be used in general problems while still producing results at least as good as the few other available models. The massive entrainment of air that takes place around a ship leads to very high void fractions and accumulation of bubbles against the hull, particularly underneath the flat regions of the hull and in low pressure regions near appendages. These processes also pose challenges for two phase solvers. As a second contribution in this thesis, numerical algorithms for two phase flows are developed to eliminate the numerical instabilities normally occurring at high void fractions or large void fraction gradients. A hybrid method to improve pressure-velocity coupling for collocated grids is introduced, which keeps advantages typical of staggered grids in mass conservation and face flux computations. A new two phase coupling strategy is developed to guarantee stability at high void fraction. The balanced force method is extended to general curvilinear grids to suppress spurious velocities. The overall methodology provides strong coupling among pressure, velocity and void fraction, while avoiding numerical instability, and works for free-surface flows on dynamic overset grids. The proposed numerical schemes are tested for 1D and 2D cases. It is shown that the two phase solver is stable and efficient, even under extreme cases. Good mass conservation properties for multigroup simulations are also demonstrated. The air entrainment model is tested for a 2D wave breaking case and compared with extensive experimental data. The results show good predictions for entrainment location and two-phase properties. Full scale simulations for Athena R/V are performed using the same modeling constants obtained for the 2D wave breaking case. A grid study is also carried out to evaluate grid convergence properties of the model. While the model can predict well experimental data at full scale for the ship, it also shows dramatic improvements respect to previous entrainment models by converging in grid and not needing to re-evaluate the model constants for each new application. The high-speed Kann boat is also simulated at full scale, showing encouraging results for a preliminary entrainment model for aeration due to impact. The proposed numerical schemes are proved stable and robust in high Reynolds number flows with complex relevant geometries. In addition, these full scale simulations also identify modeling and numerical issues for future improvements.

Oxide inclusions are among the most commonly reported defects in ferrous and non-ferrous castings. They affect the surface quality, machinability, and mechanical performance of a cast part. Air entrainment during mold filling is the main source of the oxygen that is consumed in inclusion formation. A quantitative understanding of the formation mechanisms or the prediction of final amounts and locations of oxide inclusions in metal castings is not available. Ductile iron experiments are conducted to study the formation of oxide inclusions during pouring. Oxide inclusions are measured by serial sectioning of the solidified castings. The effect of different gating systems, section thicknesses, and surface orientations on the inclusion formation and final distribution is studied. In addition, a computational model is developed for predicting the formation, motion and final location of oxide inclusions during pouring of metal castings, with the focus on the important mechanism of generation of oxide inclusions due to air entrainment during mold filling. The developed model calculates the local air entrainment rate as a function of the turbulent kinetic energy and the magnitude of the normal velocity gradient of the liquid metal at the liquid-air interface. The turbulent kinetic energy is estimated from the sum of the squares of the fluctuating velocity components relative to a spatially averaged mean velocity. The air entrainment model is implemented in a casting simulation software and validated by comparing its predictions to experimental air entrainment measurements for a circular water jet plunging into a quiescent pool. The liquid velocity, diameter and the turbulence intensity dependence is determined by a single entrainment coefficient. Oxide inclusions are then generated at the liquid-air interface, transported with the melt flow under the combined influences of drag and buoyancy, and captured by the solidifying casting surface. The developed model provides a powerful technique for predicting the oxide inclusion formation and final location.

L'écoulement autour d'un objet partiellement immergé comme une carène ou une pile de pont est une configuration fondamentale au regard de la dynamique de la surface libre. La caractérisation de cet écoulement est essentielle dans des applications environnementales, ou pour des systèmes d'énergies marines renouvelables. De telles structures sont soumises à des efforts de traînée et de portance provenant de l'interaction avec le courant, la houle, et la surface libre. Ce travail s'inscrit dans la compréhension des efforts s'exerçant sur des objets partiellement immergés. Notre problématique est simplifiée en considérant une géométrie cylindrique. Nous présentons des résultats expérimentaux obtenus en canal, où le cylindre est tracté ainsi que des résultats numériques obtenus à l'aide du code YALES2, basé sur la méthode des volumes finis. Le cylindre vertical est partiellement immergé et le sillage généré derrière le cylindre est caractérisé par une déformation de la surface libre. L'écoulement derrière le cylindre est gouverné par les nombres de Reynolds et de Froude, caractérisant l'importance des effets inertiels et gravitaires. Ces nombres sans dimension sont définis à l'aide du diamètre du cylindre. La gamme de vitesse balayée et les diamètres utilisés permettent d'atteindre des nombres de Reynolds jusqu'à 240 000, et des nombres de Froude jusqu'à 2.4 correspondant à un sillage turbulent. L'attention est portée sur les fortes déformations de surface libre allant jusqu'à sa rupture et l'entraînement d'air. En particulier, deux modes d'entrainement d'air ont été observés : (i) dans la cavité le long du cylindre et (ii) dans le sillage du cylindre. La vitesse critique à l'entraînement d'air dans la cavité a été mesurée et son évolution est comparée avec une loi d'échelle proposée par Benusiglio. Nous avons observé l'influence de cet entraînement d'air sur les efforts de traînée grâce à des mesures à l'aide de capteurs piézoélectriques. Nos résultats sont comparés avec des résultats expérimentaux à des Reynolds et Froude inférieurs et des résultats sans surface libre. Une comparaison avec des résultats numériques est également réalisée. La présence de la surface libre et de l'entraînement d'air dans la cavité entraîne une diminution des efforts de traînée par rapport au cas monophasique. Numériquement, le code utilise une méthode level-set pour la description de la surface libre et permet de reproduire les phénomènes d'entraînement d'air, la déformation de la surface libre et la dynamique de l'écoulement autour du cylindre. Ce travail étend la gamme de paramètres adimensionnels parcourus expérimentalement et numériquement, et met en évidence l'effet de l'entrainement d'air sur les efforts de traînée. / The flow past ships or an emerged body such as bridge pilar, is a fundamental, familiar and fascinating sight.Measurements and modelling of this simple flow can have relevance to offshore structures and renewable energy systems. The interaction of such structures with marine environment lead to drag, lift forces and free-surface effects.Our current problem is simplified by considering cylindrical geometry. This work presents experimental results, in which vertical cylinders are translated at constant speed through water initially at rest, and numerical results using YALES2 computing code based on finite volume method. The cylinders are partially immersed, then the motion induces turbulent wake and free-surface deformation. The flow is governed by the Reynolds and Froude numbers defined with cylinder diameter. The explored range of parameters are in the regime of turbulent wake with experiments carried out for Reynolds number up to 240 000, and Froude number up to 2.4. The focus here is on drag force measurements and strong free-surface deformation up to rupture and air-entrainment. Two modes of air-entraiment have been observed: (i) in the wake of the cylinder and (ii) in a cavity along the cylinder wall. Results are as follows. First, a scaling for the critical velocity for air-entrainment in the cavity proportional to D1/5 proposed by Benusiglio is recovered. Secondly, drag coefficients measured by piezoelectric sensors are smaller in two phase flow compared to monophasic case, and air-entrainment in the cavity enhances this decrease. Numerically, YALES2 uses level-set method for the descirption of the free-surface, and is able to reproduce air-entrainment phenomenon, free-surface deformations and flow dynamics around the cylinder. The present work expands the range of dimensionless parameters and highlights free-surface effects on drag forces.

While there has been a great deal of research on air entrainment at hydraulic jumps within closed conduits, very little of the research has specifically addressed size and temperature scale effects. Influences from jump location and changing length characteristics on air entrainment have also received little attention from past research. To determine the significance of size-scale effects of air entrained by hydraulic jumps in closed conduits, air flow measurements were taken in four different-sized circular pipe models with similar Froude numbers. Each of the pipe models sloped downward and created identical flow conditions that differed only in size. Additionally, specific measurements were taken in one of the pipe models with various water temperatures to identify any effects from changing fluid properties. To determine the significance of the effects of changed length characteristics on air demand, air flow measurements were taken with hydraulic jumps at multiple locations within a circular pipe with two different air release configurations at the end of the pipe. Results showed that air demand was not affected by the size of the model. All together, the data from four different pipe models show that size-scale effects of air entrained into hydraulic jumps within closed conduits are negligible. However, it was determined that air entrainment was significantly affected by the water temperature. Water at higher temperatures entrained much less air than water at lower temperatures. Hydraulic jump location results showed that for both configurations the percentage of air entrainment significantly increased as the hydraulic jump occurred near the point of air release downstream. As the jump occurred nearer to the end of the pipe, its length characteristics were shortened and air demand increased. However, jump location was only a significant factor until the jump occurred some distance upstream where the length characteristics were not affected. Upstream of this location the air demand was dependent only on the Froude number immediately upstream of the jump.

Yes / This study assesses experimentally the role of gas viscosity in controlling the minimum film thickness in slot coating in both the slot over roll and tensioned web modes. The minimum film thickness here is defined with respect to the onset of air entrainment rather than rivulets, the reason being that rivulets are an extreme form of instabilities occurring at much higher speeds. The gas viscosity effects are simulated experimentally by encasing the coaters in a sealed gas chamber in which various gases can be admitted. An appropriate choice of two gases was used to compare performances: air at atmospheric pressure and helium at sub-ambient pressure (25mbar), which we establish has a significantly lower “thin film” viscosity than atmospheric air. A capacitance sensor was used to continuously measure the film thickness on the web, which was ramped up in speed at a fixed acceleration whilst visualizations of the film stability were recorded through a viewing port in the chamber. The data collected show clearly that by coating in rarefied helium rather that atmospheric air we can reduce the minimum film thickness or air/gas entrainment low-flow limit. We attribute this widening of the stable coating window to the enhancement of dynamic wetting that results when the thin film gas viscosity is reduced. These results have evident practical significance for slot coating, the coating method of choice in many new technological applications, but it is their fundamental merit which is new and one that should be followed with further data and theoretical underpinning.

In all coating applications, a liquid film displaces air in contact with a dry solid substrate. At a low substrate speed a thin uniform wetting line is formed on the substrates surface, but at a high speed the wetting line becomes segmented and unsteady as air becomes entrained between the substrate and the liquid. These air bubbles affect the quality of the coated product and any means to postpone this at higher speeds without changing the specifications of the coating liquid is desirable. This research assesses the validity of a theoretically based concept developed by Blake and Rushack [1] and exploited by Cohu and Benkreira [2] for dip coating. The concept suggests that angling the wetting line by an angle ß would increase the speed at which air is entrained by a factor 1/cos ß. In practice, if achieved this is a significant increase that would result in more economical operation. This concept was tested in a fast coating operation that of curtain coating which is already enhanced by what is known as hydrodynamic assistance [2]. Here we are effectively checking an additional assistance to wetting. The work, performed on a purposed built curtain coater and a rotating die, with a range of fluids showed the concept to hold but provided the data are processed in a way that separate the effect of curtain impingement from the slanting of the wetting line.

The objective of a coating operation is to transfer a defect free liquid film onto a continuous substrate in order to meet the requirements of the final products. Mainly two concerns govern the process. The first concern is the economics of the process and the second concern is the quality of the coated film. The economics of the process are dictated by the speed of coating and the film thickness. Clearly, higher speeds mean better productivity hence less cost of operation and thinner films are desirable because less material is being used. Quality is governed by film uniformity and integrity, indicating that the film will perform as designed. Film defects such as streaks or tiny air bubbles are indication that the film properties are not uniform rendering it unacceptable to customers. One of the most versatile coating systems to achieve thin films at high speeds is reverse roll coating which has been used for a long time all over the world. At low speed, typically 1m/s, this coating operation is inherently stable and with small gaps of order 100 microns can ii lead to film thickness of order 30-50 microns. Much research, theoretical and experimental, has been devoted to this coating flow but only at low speeds and for large gaps (>100 microns). There are no comprehensive data how very thin films, 20 microns and less (particularly lower limits in the region of 5 microns) can be achieved at high speeds, of 2 or more metres per second. This study is concerned precisely with this aim, that of investigating the effect of large speeds and small roller gaps (rollers nearly touching or in elastohydrodynamic contact) to achieve the very thin films desired by modern applications (electronics, medical and others). In order to achieve this aim, a rig was designed and built to enable to understand the effect of various coating conditions and liquid properties on the metered film thickness and coating instability. To achieve thin films at high speeds, small roll gap and low viscosity are needed, however flow instabilities will develop under these conditions. To achieve stable coating window at high speeds high surface tension is needed. It was found that the roll gap and the viscosity have complicated effect on the coating window. In the case of low viscosity liquid (7mPa.s), small roll gaps are needed, whereas in the case of high viscosity liquid (more than 30mPa.s), large gaps are needed. It was found that Weber number is better describer for ribbing instability in rigid reverse roll coating unlike in rigid forward roll coating in which capillary number is the one. In addition the potential of reverse deformable roll coating (rolls in elastohydrodynamic contact) was investigated in order to achieve much thinner films at higher speeds. As a result of the investigation of reverse deformable roll coating, it was found that there is a possibility to get much thinner stable films at much higher speeds compared to reverse rigid roll coating. The liquid transfer from an applicator roller to a PET film was investigated in this study. It was found that air stagnation at downstream meniscus and air entrainment at upstream meniscus depend on the liquid properties such as viscosity and surface tension and coating conditions such as web tension and wrap angle of web. As a result, wet film instability also depends on liquid properties and coating conditions. It was found that air stagnation causes streaks on the wet film and air entrainment caused bubbles on the wet film. To get a stable wet film, it was found that suitable viscosity and high surface tension were needed. / TOYOBO

Yes / This study examines experimentally and for the first time the effect of reduced air pressure on dynamic wetting. The purpose is to assess the role of air viscosity on dynamic wetting failure which hitherto has been speculated on but not measured. In this paper we used dip coating as the model experimental flow and report data on air entrainment velocity Vae we measured with a series of silicone oils in a range of viscosities in a vacuum chamber where the pressure can be reduced from atmospheric down to a few mbar when the mean molecular free path of air is large and air ceases to have a viscosity. To complement earlier work, we carried out the experiments with a range of substrates of varying roughness. The substrates were chosen so that for each one, their two sides differ in roughness. This enables simultaneous comparative observation of their wetting performance and reduces the experimental error in assessing the role of roughness. The data presented here capture the effects of viscosity, roughness and air pressure but the important result of this study is that Vae can be increased considerably (exponentially) when the pressure is reduced with the suggestion that Vae approaches infinity as pressure approaches zero. In other words, the role of the surrounding air viscosity is important in dynamic wetting. The data from this study have significant implication to the fundamental understanding of dynamic wetting. Indeed they form the missing data link to fully understand this phenomenon. The data presented in this work also confirm the complex role of roughness, in that it can increase or decrease the air entrainment speed depending on the value on the viscosity of the coating solution. The results presented in this paper are very useful in practice as they imply that if one chooses carefully roughness one can coat viscous formulation at unexpectedly very high speeds with a moderate vacuum (50 mbar typically).