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Two projects were undertaken to study the non-energy conserving alternative pathway present in the plant mitochondrial ETC. In the first project, a tobacco AOX2 gene was cloned and characterized. AOX2 showed tissue specificity in expression and could not be induced by common stresses. In the second project I carried out a physiological characterization of transgenic tobacco plants with increased or decreased expression of AOX1 subjected to cold stress. Under non-stress condition, a strong inverse relationship between levels of AOX1 and levels of oxidative damage was observed, while after cold treatment AOX1 transgenic lines and WT showed more complicated and differential responses in aspects of oxidative damage and the capacity of antioxidant system. I also discovered that the pool sizes of monosaccharides after temperature shift were proportional to AOX1 levels. These results indicated that AOX1 might have crucial but complex impacts on ROS balance and carbon metabolism during cold stress.

Two projects were undertaken to study the non-energy conserving alternative pathway present in the plant mitochondrial ETC. In the first project, a tobacco AOX2 gene was cloned and characterized. AOX2 showed tissue specificity in expression and could not be induced by common stresses. In the second project I carried out a physiological characterization of transgenic tobacco plants with increased or decreased expression of AOX1 subjected to cold stress. Under non-stress condition, a strong inverse relationship between levels of AOX1 and levels of oxidative damage was observed, while after cold treatment AOX1 transgenic lines and WT showed more complicated and differential responses in aspects of oxidative damage and the capacity of antioxidant system. I also discovered that the pool sizes of monosaccharides after temperature shift were proportional to AOX1 levels. These results indicated that AOX1 might have crucial but complex impacts on ROS balance and carbon metabolism during cold stress.

O Aspergillus fumigatus é um fungo filamentoso e saprofítico, encontrado em todas as regiões do mundo, desempenhando um importante papel na reciclagem de carbono e nitrogênio do solo. A principal forma de infecção ocorre através da inalação dos conídios com predominância de infecções no trato respiratório, principalmente em pacientes imunocomprometidos. A mitocôndria de A. fumigatus foi caracterizada em nosso laboratório, que revelou a presença de uma respiração resistente a cianeto mediada pela oxidase alternativa. A clonagem e sequenciamento deste gene foram realizadas através de screening de uma biblioteca de DNA genômico. O alinhamento das sequências genômica e de cDNA mostrou a presença de dois introns, que após splicing codifica uma proteína contendo 352 aminoácidos, possuindo uma massa molecular estimada de 40,84 kDa e um pI teórico de 9,51. Além disso, foram identificados domínios altamente conservados (LET, NERMHL, LEEA e RADEH) que interagem com átomos de ferro e estão contidos em -hélices propostas como responsáveis pela organização estrutural da enzima. A fim de caracterizar bioquimicamente esta proteína, a sequência de cDNA do gene foi clonada em plasmídeo pYES2 e expressa em S. cerevisiae INVSc1 como um modelo eucarioto. Após expressão, a proteína encontrou-se de forma ativa, conferindo à levedura uma respiração resistente a cianeto. Esta característica herdada provocou uma discreta diminuição na taxa de crescimento em meio não-fermentativo e uma capacidade de sobrevivência na presença de KCN. Acredita-se que a atividade das AOXs esteja diretamente relacionada com a presença de diferentes espécies reativas de oxigênio (ERO). Neste contexto, a avaliação do efeito de diferentes agentes pró-oxidantes provocou um aumento na atividade e na expressão da enzima. Paralelamente, a caracterização funcional do gene foi realizada através da técnica de interferência por RNA, utilizando o vetor de expressão pALB1. Em meio contendo maltose, as cepas pALB1/aoxAf apresentaram coloração branca devido ao silenciamento do gene alb1. Os níveis de mRNA do gene aoxAf foram determinados por Real time RT-PCR, mostrando o eficiente silenciamento do gene alvo com a construção utilizada. Devido à relação já descrita entre ERO e a atividade das AOXs, avaliou-se a produção de espécies reativas de oxigênio nas cepas silenciadas utilizando-se a sonda CM-H2DCFDA, observando maior produção na cepa pALB1/aoxAf. Além disso, a viabilidade destas cepas foi determinada por citometria de fluxo após a exposição com agentes pró-oxidantes, a qual indicou maior letalidade na cepa pALB1/aoxAf, quando comparada com CEA e pALB1. Da mesma forma, após a incubação dos conídios das cepas silenciadas com macrófagos de camundongos foi verificada uma maior atividade microbicida dos macrófagos na cepa duplamente silenciada pALB1/aoxAf, quando comparada com as outras cepas. Com estes resultados podemos concluir que a oxidase alternativa apresenta uma importante atividade antioxidante, além de contribuir nos mecanismos de defesa durante o processo de infecção de A. fumigatus. / The saprophytic species Aspergillus fumigatus is a deuteromycete fungus found worldwide, which has an essential role in recycling carbon and nitrogen. Following inhalation of conidia by the immunocompetent host, the innate cellular immune system is responsible for killing the conidia, exposing them to reactive oxygen. However, A. fumigatus is capable of surviving and replicating within the phagolysosomal compartment of immunocompromised macrophages. It was previously demonstrated that A. fumigatus mitochondria possess an alternative oxidase (aoxAf) wich is a cyanide-resistant protein. A partial genomic DNA library was screened to cloning an aoxAf gene. The alignment between the cDNA and genomic DNA sequences revealed the existence of two introns which after splicing encodes a 352 amino acid sequence with a calculated molecular mass of 40 kDa and a theoretical pI of 9.51. The deduced amino acid sequence revealed four regions completely conserved among the AOXs sequences (LET, NERMHL, LEEA and RADE-H), where six conserved amino acids residues are proposed to be a metal ligand site. To characterize the AOX protein, a cDNA of aoxAf gene was cloned into pYES2 plasmid and transformed in S. cerevisiae INVSc1. After the incubation of the cells in a nonfermentable medium in the presence of KCN, S. cerevisiae expressing AOX was able to grow, while it was lethal for the control yeast. These results suggest that the recombinant AOXAf is properly targeted to the S. cerevisiae mitochondria where it has functional activity. Studies with different species demonstrated that AOX is induced by a variety of treatments usually labeled as stresses. To verify the function of AOX in A. fumigatus under oxidative stress conditions, conidia were treated with different donors of ROS. These treatments caused an increase in aoxAf activity and transcription levels. To identify genetically attributes of virulence and oxidative defense in A. fumigatus, we construct a RNA interference plasmid. Two inverted repeated sequences of conserved region of an interest gene were amplified and cloned in pALB1 plasmid. In maltose medium pALB1 and pALB1/aoxAf transformants demonstrated white colonies, attributable to the reduction of alb1 gene expression. The aoxAf mRNA levels were analyzed by Real time RT-PCR, showing an efficient alternative oxidase gene silencing in pALB1 plasmid construction. It was previously demonstrated that ROS can stimulate the AOXs activity, so, we used the dye CM-H2DCFDA to measure ROS production in RNAi transformants, showing that the decrease in aoxAf gene expression caused an increase in ROS production. After incubation with ROS donors the viability of these strains was determined by flow cytometry analysis. The pALB1/aoxAf strain showed higher lethality, when compared with CEA and pALB1, suggesting the involvement of AOX in antioxidant defense in A. fumigatus. Besides, ROS produced by alveolar macrophages play an essential role in the killing of A. fumigatus conidia. In the same way, phagocytosis assay revealed that pALB1/aoxAf strain was more lethal than CEA and pALB1. With these results, we concluded that alternative oxidase is an efficient antioxidant system and might contribute with defense mechanism of A. fumigatus.

<p>Diiron carboxylate proteins constitute an important class of metall-containing enzymes. These proteins perform a multitude of reactions in biological systems that normally involve activation of molecular oxygen at the diiron site.</p><p>During activation and functioning of these proteins their diiron sites undergo redox changes in a rather wide range: from diferrous (FeII-FeII) to high potential intermediate Q(FeIV-FeIV). Two of these redox states are paramagnetic: (FeIV-FeIII), called high potential intermediate X, and (FeII-FeIII), called mixed-valent state of the diiron carboxylate proteins. In the present work it has been shown that these redox states are of functional relevance in two proteins with different functions.</p><p>Ribonucleotide reductase (RNR) from the human parasite<i> Chlamydia trachomatis</i> is a class I RNR. It is typical for class I RNR to initiate the enzymatic reaction on its large subunit, protein R1, by activation from a stable tyrosyl free radical in its small subunit, protein R2. This radical, in its turn, is formed through oxygen activation by the diiron center. In C. trachomatis the tyrosine residue is replaced by phenylalanine, which cannot form a radical. We have shown in the present work, that active <i>C. trachomatis</i> RNR uses the FeIII-FeIV state of the diiron carboxylate cluster in R2 instead of a tyrosyl radical to initiate the catalytic reaction.</p><p>The alternative oxidase (AOX) is a ubiquinol oxidase found in the mitochondrial respiratory chain of plants. The existence of the diiron carboxylate center in this protein was predicted on the basis of a conserved sequence motif consisting of the proposed iron ligands, four glutamate and two histidine residues. In experiments modeling the conditions of the enzyme catalytic cycle, i.e. reduction and reoxygenation of the overexpressed AOX in <i>Escherichia coli</i> membranes we were able to generate an EPR signal characteristic of a mixed-valent Fe(II)/Fe(III) binuclear iron center. The alternative oxidase is the first membrane protein where the existence of the diiron carboxylate center has been shown experimentally.</p>

Diiron carboxylate proteins constitute an important class of metall-containing enzymes. These proteins perform a multitude of reactions in biological systems that normally involve activation of molecular oxygen at the diiron site. During activation and functioning of these proteins their diiron sites undergo redox changes in a rather wide range: from diferrous (FeII-FeII) to high potential intermediate Q(FeIV-FeIV). Two of these redox states are paramagnetic: (FeIV-FeIII), called high potential intermediate X, and (FeII-FeIII), called mixed-valent state of the diiron carboxylate proteins. In the present work it has been shown that these redox states are of functional relevance in two proteins with different functions. Ribonucleotide reductase (RNR) from the human parasite Chlamydia trachomatis is a class I RNR. It is typical for class I RNR to initiate the enzymatic reaction on its large subunit, protein R1, by activation from a stable tyrosyl free radical in its small subunit, protein R2. This radical, in its turn, is formed through oxygen activation by the diiron center. In C. trachomatis the tyrosine residue is replaced by phenylalanine, which cannot form a radical. We have shown in the present work, that active C. trachomatis RNR uses the FeIII-FeIV state of the diiron carboxylate cluster in R2 instead of a tyrosyl radical to initiate the catalytic reaction. The alternative oxidase (AOX) is a ubiquinol oxidase found in the mitochondrial respiratory chain of plants. The existence of the diiron carboxylate center in this protein was predicted on the basis of a conserved sequence motif consisting of the proposed iron ligands, four glutamate and two histidine residues. In experiments modeling the conditions of the enzyme catalytic cycle, i.e. reduction and reoxygenation of the overexpressed AOX in Escherichia coli membranes we were able to generate an EPR signal characteristic of a mixed-valent Fe(II)/Fe(III) binuclear iron center. The alternative oxidase is the first membrane protein where the existence of the diiron carboxylate center has been shown experimentally.

Photosynthetic electron transport produces ATP and NADPH which support carbon fixation by the Calvin Cycle. To avoid over-reduction of the electron transport chain, plants must balance absorption and consumption of light energy. Mitochondrial alternative oxidase (AOX) is a non-energy-conserving electron sink, making it an ideal candidate to oxidize excess reductant and regulate chloroplastic redox state. Wild-type (WT) and transgenic Nicotiana tabacum lines with enhanced or suppressed AOX protein levels were grown under low light (LL) and moderate light (ML). LL-grown plants were also shifted to ML. AOX transcript and protein levels were enhanced in WT plants under ML. Chlorophyll fluorescence, gas exchange, and contents of chlorophyll, carbohydrate, and malondialdehyde were measured. Lack of AOX protein decreased Photosystem II (PSII) quantum efficiency and CO2 assimilation rates while enhancing PSII excitation pressure compared to WT. These findings suggest a role for AOX in mediating the chloroplast-mitochondrion relationship during acclimation to higher irradiance.

Photosynthetic electron transport produces ATP and NADPH which support carbon fixation by the Calvin Cycle. To avoid over-reduction of the electron transport chain, plants must balance absorption and consumption of light energy. Mitochondrial alternative oxidase (AOX) is a non-energy-conserving electron sink, making it an ideal candidate to oxidize excess reductant and regulate chloroplastic redox state. Wild-type (WT) and transgenic Nicotiana tabacum lines with enhanced or suppressed AOX protein levels were grown under low light (LL) and moderate light (ML). LL-grown plants were also shifted to ML. AOX transcript and protein levels were enhanced in WT plants under ML. Chlorophyll fluorescence, gas exchange, and contents of chlorophyll, carbohydrate, and malondialdehyde were measured. Lack of AOX protein decreased Photosystem II (PSII) quantum efficiency and CO2 assimilation rates while enhancing PSII excitation pressure compared to WT. These findings suggest a role for AOX in mediating the chloroplast-mitochondrion relationship during acclimation to higher irradiance.

The physiological function of the plant enzyme alternative oxidase has long been a topic of debate. The cyanide-resistant alternative oxidase (AOX), along with the cytochrome c oxidase (COX), catalyzes the reduction of oxygen to water in the electron transport chain of mitochondrial respiration. Although respiration via the alternative pathway (AP) results in approximately one third of the ATP production as respiration via the cytochrome pathway (CP), the AP is utilized by all plants and some fungi and animals. This “energy wasteful” pathway has been proposed to reduce oxidative stress in plant cells under a variety of stressful conditions. Virtually all previous work on the AP has been performed on laboratory-grown plants in controlled environment conditions; thus, there is little knowledge of how the AP responds to unstable conditions and multiple environmental stresses in the field. This thesis presents new methodology for studying AP respiration and the AOX protein in field-grown plants, and investigates how the AP responds to natural changes in environmental conditions in the field in several plant species grown in diverse ecosystem types. The experimental work presented here also investigates how AP activity is related to changes in total rates of respiration, and questions whether abundance of the AOX protein determines electron partitioning to the AP. AP partitioning (or relative changes in AP partitioning) varied over seasonal timescales in each of the experimental studies. Chapter 3 reports on two species of Chionochloa, a native New Zealand tussock grass growing along an altitudinal gradient. In Chapter 4, seasonal variation was studied in two tree types: Populus x canadensis, a deciduous angiosperm, and Pinus radiata, an evergreen gymnosperm. Quercus rubra trees were studied along an urban-rural gradient originating in New York City in Chapter 5. In a highly exposed and variable environment, relative changes in AP partitioning in two species of Chionochloa were correlated with the previous day’s integrated light. In Quercus rubra, the AP was instead related to temperature changes: relative AP partitioning increased in response to seasonally low temperature in trees grown at colder, more rural field sites, while at the warmer, urban sites, it increased in response to high summer temperatures. Each of these environmental conditions that were related to increases in the AP (high light, low temperatures, and heat) are potentially stressful to plants. Thus, it is possible that the increases in AP respiration observed in these studies served to oxidize excess reducing equivalents generated through stressful conditions. In Chapter 4, although AP partitioning in Populus x canadensis and Pinus radiata varied seasonally, these changes were not directly related to environmental parameters. However, AP partitioning in Populus x canadensis was clearly shown to be dependent on measurement temperature. In each of the studies presented here, changes in the AP were not related to abundance of the AOX protein. AOX protein abundance showed consistent seasonal patterns in the two deciduous angiosperms, Populus sp. and Quercus sp, and was correlated with seasonal changes in temperature in Chionochloa spp. However, the lack of correlation between protein abundance and AP partitioning indicates that the AP is subject to post-translational control and likely varies more rapidly than protein levels. In each of Chapters 3 – 5, there was no clear impact of changes in AP partitioning on rates of total respiration. As the AP produces less ATP than the CP, I hypothesized that increases in AP activity would lead to higher respiration rates in order to meet a plant’s energy demands. However, in Populus x canadensis and Quercus rubra, respiration rates remained stable during sharp increases in AP partitioning, indicating that, at least under certain conditions, increases in AP activity are accompanied by a decrease in the CP. In some of the first research studying AP partitioning in field-grown plants, this thesis illuminates possible mechanisms, functions, and implications of the AP. Over a range of plant taxa and environmental settings, this work shows that the AP does respond to stressful conditions in the wild, but that this does not result in increased respiration. Lastly, the methods presented here to study AP activity and AOX proteins in the field enable future studies to further probe the specific responses of AOX to natural stresses.

O Aspergillus fumigatus é um fungo filamentoso e saprofítico, encontrado em todas as regiões do mundo, desempenhando um importante papel na reciclagem de carbono e nitrogênio do solo. A principal forma de infecção ocorre através da inalação dos conídios com predominância de infecções no trato respiratório, principalmente em pacientes imunocomprometidos. A mitocôndria de A. fumigatus foi caracterizada em nosso laboratório, que revelou a presença de uma respiração resistente a cianeto mediada pela oxidase alternativa. A clonagem e sequenciamento deste gene foram realizadas através de screening de uma biblioteca de DNA genômico. O alinhamento das sequências genômica e de cDNA mostrou a presença de dois introns, que após splicing codifica uma proteína contendo 352 aminoácidos, possuindo uma massa molecular estimada de 40,84 kDa e um pI teórico de 9,51. Além disso, foram identificados domínios altamente conservados (LET, NERMHL, LEEA e RADEH) que interagem com átomos de ferro e estão contidos em -hélices propostas como responsáveis pela organização estrutural da enzima. A fim de caracterizar bioquimicamente esta proteína, a sequência de cDNA do gene foi clonada em plasmídeo pYES2 e expressa em S. cerevisiae INVSc1 como um modelo eucarioto. Após expressão, a proteína encontrou-se de forma ativa, conferindo à levedura uma respiração resistente a cianeto. Esta característica herdada provocou uma discreta diminuição na taxa de crescimento em meio não-fermentativo e uma capacidade de sobrevivência na presença de KCN. Acredita-se que a atividade das AOXs esteja diretamente relacionada com a presença de diferentes espécies reativas de oxigênio (ERO). Neste contexto, a avaliação do efeito de diferentes agentes pró-oxidantes provocou um aumento na atividade e na expressão da enzima. Paralelamente, a caracterização funcional do gene foi realizada através da técnica de interferência por RNA, utilizando o vetor de expressão pALB1. Em meio contendo maltose, as cepas pALB1/aoxAf apresentaram coloração branca devido ao silenciamento do gene alb1. Os níveis de mRNA do gene aoxAf foram determinados por Real time RT-PCR, mostrando o eficiente silenciamento do gene alvo com a construção utilizada. Devido à relação já descrita entre ERO e a atividade das AOXs, avaliou-se a produção de espécies reativas de oxigênio nas cepas silenciadas utilizando-se a sonda CM-H2DCFDA, observando maior produção na cepa pALB1/aoxAf. Além disso, a viabilidade destas cepas foi determinada por citometria de fluxo após a exposição com agentes pró-oxidantes, a qual indicou maior letalidade na cepa pALB1/aoxAf, quando comparada com CEA e pALB1. Da mesma forma, após a incubação dos conídios das cepas silenciadas com macrófagos de camundongos foi verificada uma maior atividade microbicida dos macrófagos na cepa duplamente silenciada pALB1/aoxAf, quando comparada com as outras cepas. Com estes resultados podemos concluir que a oxidase alternativa apresenta uma importante atividade antioxidante, além de contribuir nos mecanismos de defesa durante o processo de infecção de A. fumigatus. / The saprophytic species Aspergillus fumigatus is a deuteromycete fungus found worldwide, which has an essential role in recycling carbon and nitrogen. Following inhalation of conidia by the immunocompetent host, the innate cellular immune system is responsible for killing the conidia, exposing them to reactive oxygen. However, A. fumigatus is capable of surviving and replicating within the phagolysosomal compartment of immunocompromised macrophages. It was previously demonstrated that A. fumigatus mitochondria possess an alternative oxidase (aoxAf) wich is a cyanide-resistant protein. A partial genomic DNA library was screened to cloning an aoxAf gene. The alignment between the cDNA and genomic DNA sequences revealed the existence of two introns which after splicing encodes a 352 amino acid sequence with a calculated molecular mass of 40 kDa and a theoretical pI of 9.51. The deduced amino acid sequence revealed four regions completely conserved among the AOXs sequences (LET, NERMHL, LEEA and RADE-H), where six conserved amino acids residues are proposed to be a metal ligand site. To characterize the AOX protein, a cDNA of aoxAf gene was cloned into pYES2 plasmid and transformed in S. cerevisiae INVSc1. After the incubation of the cells in a nonfermentable medium in the presence of KCN, S. cerevisiae expressing AOX was able to grow, while it was lethal for the control yeast. These results suggest that the recombinant AOXAf is properly targeted to the S. cerevisiae mitochondria where it has functional activity. Studies with different species demonstrated that AOX is induced by a variety of treatments usually labeled as stresses. To verify the function of AOX in A. fumigatus under oxidative stress conditions, conidia were treated with different donors of ROS. These treatments caused an increase in aoxAf activity and transcription levels. To identify genetically attributes of virulence and oxidative defense in A. fumigatus, we construct a RNA interference plasmid. Two inverted repeated sequences of conserved region of an interest gene were amplified and cloned in pALB1 plasmid. In maltose medium pALB1 and pALB1/aoxAf transformants demonstrated white colonies, attributable to the reduction of alb1 gene expression. The aoxAf mRNA levels were analyzed by Real time RT-PCR, showing an efficient alternative oxidase gene silencing in pALB1 plasmid construction. It was previously demonstrated that ROS can stimulate the AOXs activity, so, we used the dye CM-H2DCFDA to measure ROS production in RNAi transformants, showing that the decrease in aoxAf gene expression caused an increase in ROS production. After incubation with ROS donors the viability of these strains was determined by flow cytometry analysis. The pALB1/aoxAf strain showed higher lethality, when compared with CEA and pALB1, suggesting the involvement of AOX in antioxidant defense in A. fumigatus. Besides, ROS produced by alveolar macrophages play an essential role in the killing of A. fumigatus conidia. In the same way, phagocytosis assay revealed that pALB1/aoxAf strain was more lethal than CEA and pALB1. With these results, we concluded that alternative oxidase is an efficient antioxidant system and might contribute with defense mechanism of A. fumigatus.