Succinylcolin är ett icke-depolariserande muskelrelaxantia som används inom anestesisjukvård. En vanlig biverkning är postoperativ myalgi. Varför smärtan uppstår är inte helt klarlagd. Under många år har forskare runt om i världen försökt komma till rätta med problemet utan att helt lyckas.Olika läkemedel och strategier har prövats. En av de viktigaste uppgifter en sjuksköterska har är att förebygga och lindra lidande. Som anestesisjuksköterska finns det möjlighet att påverka den vård som ordineras. Syftet med studien var att undersöka vilka metoder som kan förebygga postoperativ myalgi orsakad av succinylcolin. En litteraturstudie baserad på tio vetenskapliga artiklar genomfördes. Resultatet visade att parecoxib preoperativt samt premedicinering med diklofenakplåster gav det bästa resultatet när det gäller reducerande av myalgi. Med hjälp av dessa så vanliga läkemedel kan onödigt lidande förebyggas och samhällsekonomiska resurser sparas.

Introduction. Multiple clinical methods for detecting myocardial ischemia are utilised in the hospital setting each day, but there is uncertainty about their diagnostic accuracy. In the operating room, multiple methods may be employed, while in the CCU advanced electrophysiological (ECG) techniques for myocardial ischemia detection, and in particular, ST segment analysis, are common. Vectorcardiography (VCG) is one form of ECG. Several conditions other than ischemia may cause marked ST changes, which can impair the process of diagnosis of clinical ischemia. Elevated HR is one of these factors, which is studied here. The hypotheses were about concordance of different methods to detect ischemia, and relation of ECG ST levels to HR with and without myocardial ischemia. Methods. Study I. Anesthetised vascular surgical patients with coronary artery disease were studied during the start of anesthesia and surgery: ECG, hemodynamic, mechanical, and metabolic parameters were measured and categorised as positive or negative with reference to a specific definition of myocardial ischemia. Study II. Awake patients with no ischemic heart disease were paced in graded steps, and VCG ST analyses were performed. Study III. Anesthetised pigs were studied for local metabolic and VCG ST changes related to controlled HR levels and transient coronary occlusion. Study IV. Thirty five anesthetised coronary artery disease (CAD) patients and ten non-CAD patients were paced at controlled levels, and great coronary artery vein (GCV) lactate measurement was used to determine presence or absence of myocardial ischemia. The CAD patients were paced up to HR levels where myocardial ischemia could be confirmed. The relation of HR-related VCG ST levels to presence or absence of ischemia was analysed. In Studies II,, III, and IV the ST vector magnitude (ST-VM), the change from baseline in ST-VM (STC-VM), and the vector angle change from baseline (STC-VA) were analysed for each step. Results. Study I. Poor concordance was demonstrated for positive events (presumed myocardial ischemia) between the hemodynamic, ECG, mechanical, and metabolic detection methods. Study II. STC-VM but not ST-VM levels demonstrated HR-related increases in the presumed absence of myocardial ischemia in 18 awake subjects. J point time to ST measurement did not affect the response of VCG ST to HR. Study III. STC-VM levels showed HR-related increases in the absence of ischemia (tested by local metabolic observations). VCG ST parameters responded positively to transient regional ischemia. Study IV. CAD patients, which demonstrated a clear pattern of onset and progress of ischemia during pacing, were further analysed for the relation of VCG ST level to ischemia. Sensitivity and specificity of STC-VM levels were described by ROC analysis for a range of STC-VM levels. Conclusions. Concordance of different measures for detection of onset of myocardial ischemia is difficult to assess in the absence of a very reliable reference method. The contribution of HR and ischemia to VCG ST levels were estimated in study subjects. HR-related increases in STC-VM occur in the absence of ischemia. HR levels need to be considered when interpreting STC-VM as a diagnostic test for ischemia. Further study is needed to establish criteria that take into account multiple clinical factors in order to improve the predictive value of our tests for myocardial ischemia.

Det övergripande syftet med avhandlingsarbetet är att illustrera och belysa upplevelsen av att vara patient med behov av ledprotes, avseende aspekterna kommunikation, smärtupplevelse, lidande och tillfredsställelse med vård och behandling. Under väntetiden för ledprotesoperation upplever deltagarna i studierna lidande i olika former, tillika att vården är otillgänglig och onåbar i ett ansiktslöst system (I). Att få information om sin sjukdom vad man kan/får/ska göra är nästan omöjligt. Kontakten med sjukvården är svår att upprätta och det är mestadels patientens ansvar att söka information om vad som händer (II). Den bristfälliga kommunikationen som deltagarna i delstudie I upplever, leder till att de känner sig missförstådda och nedvärderade av sjukvårdssystemet, och därmed befinner sig i en ständig kamp för att få sitt vårdbehov bekräftat. Under deltagarnas vandring i sjukvårdssystemet förändras deras negativa uppfattning om vården till att bli mer positiv när en reell kommunikation och personlig kontakt etablerats (IIV). Fynden i arbetena (I-IV) tolkas inom ramen för Katie Erikssons och Lennart Fredrikssons beskrivningar av lidande och det vårdande samtalet. En del deltagare i studierna har av egen kraft, eller till följd av personliga egenskaper uppnått insikter om sig själva och försonats med sitt lidande, på så sätt har de kunnat bibehålla eller uppnå mening i sin tillvaro. Av egen kraft, eller med hjälp av anhöriga kan individerna få sitt lidande bekräftat och därmed möjligheten att kunna lida ut och försonas med sig själv och den förändrade tillvaron. Så länge som sjukvården upplevs som ett ansiktslöst system finns det deltagare i avhandlingen som inte klarar av att ta itu med sitt lidande. Under patientens vandring i sjukvårdssystemet blir det uppenbart att systemet får ett ansikte först när deltagarna kan relatera till vården i form av en reell person. Vården får inte ett ansikte så länge som patienten upplever sig dåligt bemött utan detta sker när det med Fredrikssons termer uppstår ett vårdande samtal. Under väntetiden för operation finns det relativt få tillfällen där ett vårdande samtal har möjlighet att uppstå. Möjligheten för detta är dock större när patienten väl är inlagd på sjukhuset för att bli opererad, vilket återspeglas i den höga grad av tillfredsställelse med vården som uttrycks i delstudie II-IV. Patienterna är tillfredsställda med vård och behandling, trots att de har upplevt postoperativ smärta i en hög grad. I delstudie III var det 68% (n=40) och i delstudie IV 83.5% (n=50) som hade upplevt smärtor motsvarande ≥ 4 på Visuell Analog Skala (VAS). Under sjukhusvistelsen upplever sig patienten bekräftad och synlig i systemet. Synligheten är ömsesidig då även vården (systemet) får ett ansikte på patienten. I ett vårdande samtal uppstår en känsla av tillit och när detta sker vågar patienten och vårdaren kommunicera på ett öppet sätt där de båda är närvarande i situationen / The overall objective of the thesis is to describe and illustrate the experience of being an arthroplastic surgery patient during the perioperative period with regard to the issues of communication, pain,suffering and satisfaction with care. While waiting for surgery, the participants in this thesis experience suffering in different ways and mainly experience health care as being unavailable and negative in a faceless system (I). Obtaining information related to their illness is difficult, as it is hard to establish contact with health care providers. The responsibility for establishing contact and obtaining information rests solely with the patients (II). In Paper I, due to poor communication, the respondents express feelings of abandonment, anonymity and being disparaged by the health care system. During the participants' journey through the health care system, the negative experience acquires a more positive nature, as personal contacts are established with health care representatives (I-IV). The findings in the different papers (I-IV) are interpreted in the light of Katie Eriksson and Lennart Fredriksson’s descriptions of suffering and the caring conversation. There are participants in this thesis who have been able to reach a personal understanding of themselves and have found reconciliation in suffering. In this way, they have been able to maintain or obtain meaning in their lifeworld. Through their own power, or with the help of family and friends, individuals may be able to attain confirmation of their suffering, have the time and space to suffer and find reconciliation. However, as long as health care is experienced as a faceless system, there are individuals in this study who are unable to face their suffering. During the patients’ journey through the system, it becomes obvious that the system obtains a face when the individuals are able to establish trustful contact with an actual person within the system. The system does not obtain a face as long as the individuals perceive themselves as being poorly treated by health care representatives. In these cases, the system is actually the cause of additional suffering. In the terms defined by Fredriksson, the system obtains a face when a turning point occurs in the form of a caring conversation. During the waiting time, there are few opportunities for a caring conversation. An opportunity is more likely to occur when the individual is admitted to hospital. This is reflected in the extensive degree of satisfaction with care as expressed in Papers II-IV. High levels of satisfaction are reported, although the participants report having experienced high levels of postoperative pain. In Paper III, 68% (n=40) and, in Paper IV, 83.5% (n=50) of the patients experienced pain of ≥ 4 on the Visual Analogue Scale (VAS). When they have been admitted to hospital, the individuals sense that they are confirmed by and visible in the system. This visibility is mutual, as the individual becomes an actual person to health care representatives. In a caring conversation, a sense of trust is established and, as this occurs, the individual and the care provider dare to communicate in an open way, where both are present in the situation.

<p>Cardiac arrest results in immediate interruption of blood flow. The primary goal of cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) is to re-establish blood flow and hence oxygen delivery to the vital organs. This thesis describes different pharmacological interventions aimed at increasing cerebral blood flow during CPR and after restoration of spontaneous circulation (ROSC).</p><p>In a porcine model of cardiac arrest, continuous infusion of adrenaline generated higher cortical cerebral blood flow during CPR as compared to bolus administration of adrenaline. While bolus doses resulted in temporary peaks in cerebral blood flow, continuous infusion led to a sustained increase in this flow.</p><p>Administration of vasopressin resulted in higher cortical cerebral blood flow and a lower cerebral oxygen extraction ratio as compared to continuous infusion of adrenaline during CPR. In addition, vasopressin generated higher coronary perfusion pressure during CPR and increased the likelihood of achieving ROSC.</p><p>Parameters of coagulation and inflammation were measured after successful resuscitation from cardiac arrest. Immediately after ROSC, thrombin-antithrombin complex, a marker of thrombin generation, was elevated and eicosanoid levels were increased, indicating activation of coagulation and inflammation after ROSC. The thrombin generation was accompanied by a reduction in antithrombin. In addition, there was substantial haemoconcentration in the initial period after ROSC.</p><p>By administration of antithrombin during CPR, supraphysiological levels of antithrombin were achieved. However, antithrombin administration did not increase cerebral circulation or reduce reperfusion injury, as measured by cortical cerebral blood flow, cerebral oxygen extraction and levels of eicosanoids, after ROSC. </p><p>In a clinical study, the adrenaline dose interval was found to be longer than recommended in the majority of cases of cardiac arrest. Thus, the adherence to recommended guidelines regarding the adrenaline dose interval seems to be poor. </p>

<p>Evaluating respiratory mechanics during dynamic conditions without interrupting ongoing ventilation and flow, adds to the information obtained from the mechanics derived from static (= no flow) conditions, i.e., the flow signal has the potential to provide information on the properties of the respiratory system (including the tubing system). Hence monitoring the changes in the flow signal during ongoing mechanical ventilation would give information about the dynamic mechanics of the respiratory system. Any change in the mechanics of the respiratory system including the endotracheal tube (ETT) and the ventilatory circuit would affect the shape of the flow signal. </p><p>Knowledge of the airway pressure distal to the ETT at the carina level (= tracheal pressure) is required for calculating the extra resistive load exerted by the endotracheal tube in order to compensate for it. In a porcine model, the flow signal was used to non-invasively calculate tracheal pressure. There was good agreement between calculated and measured tracheal pressure with different modes of ventilation. However, calculation of tracheal pressure assumes that the inner diameter of the ETT is known, and this assumption is not met if the inner diameter is narrowed by secretions. Flow that passes a narrowed tube is decelerated and this is most pronounced with the high flow of early expiration, yielding a typical time constant over expiratory volume pattern that is easy to recognize during mechanical ventilation. This pattern reliably detected partial endotracheal obstruction during volume and pressure controlled mechanical ventilation. </p><p>A change in compliance of the respiratory system modifies the elastic recoil and this also affects the rate of the expiratory flow and the shape of its signal. In a porcine model, lung volume gains on the flow signal generated by the heartbeats (cardiogenic oscillations) provided information about the compliance of the respiratory system during ongoing mechanical ventilation</p><p>In conclusion analyzing the flow signal during ongoing ventilation can be a cheap, non-invasive and reliable tool to monitor the elastic and resistive properties of the respiratory system including the endotracheal tube.</p>

Cardiac arrest results in immediate interruption of blood flow. The primary goal of cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) is to re-establish blood flow and hence oxygen delivery to the vital organs. This thesis describes different pharmacological interventions aimed at increasing cerebral blood flow during CPR and after restoration of spontaneous circulation (ROSC). In a porcine model of cardiac arrest, continuous infusion of adrenaline generated higher cortical cerebral blood flow during CPR as compared to bolus administration of adrenaline. While bolus doses resulted in temporary peaks in cerebral blood flow, continuous infusion led to a sustained increase in this flow. Administration of vasopressin resulted in higher cortical cerebral blood flow and a lower cerebral oxygen extraction ratio as compared to continuous infusion of adrenaline during CPR. In addition, vasopressin generated higher coronary perfusion pressure during CPR and increased the likelihood of achieving ROSC. Parameters of coagulation and inflammation were measured after successful resuscitation from cardiac arrest. Immediately after ROSC, thrombin-antithrombin complex, a marker of thrombin generation, was elevated and eicosanoid levels were increased, indicating activation of coagulation and inflammation after ROSC. The thrombin generation was accompanied by a reduction in antithrombin. In addition, there was substantial haemoconcentration in the initial period after ROSC. By administration of antithrombin during CPR, supraphysiological levels of antithrombin were achieved. However, antithrombin administration did not increase cerebral circulation or reduce reperfusion injury, as measured by cortical cerebral blood flow, cerebral oxygen extraction and levels of eicosanoids, after ROSC. In a clinical study, the adrenaline dose interval was found to be longer than recommended in the majority of cases of cardiac arrest. Thus, the adherence to recommended guidelines regarding the adrenaline dose interval seems to be poor.

Evaluating respiratory mechanics during dynamic conditions without interrupting ongoing ventilation and flow, adds to the information obtained from the mechanics derived from static (= no flow) conditions, i.e., the flow signal has the potential to provide information on the properties of the respiratory system (including the tubing system). Hence monitoring the changes in the flow signal during ongoing mechanical ventilation would give information about the dynamic mechanics of the respiratory system. Any change in the mechanics of the respiratory system including the endotracheal tube (ETT) and the ventilatory circuit would affect the shape of the flow signal. Knowledge of the airway pressure distal to the ETT at the carina level (= tracheal pressure) is required for calculating the extra resistive load exerted by the endotracheal tube in order to compensate for it. In a porcine model, the flow signal was used to non-invasively calculate tracheal pressure. There was good agreement between calculated and measured tracheal pressure with different modes of ventilation. However, calculation of tracheal pressure assumes that the inner diameter of the ETT is known, and this assumption is not met if the inner diameter is narrowed by secretions. Flow that passes a narrowed tube is decelerated and this is most pronounced with the high flow of early expiration, yielding a typical time constant over expiratory volume pattern that is easy to recognize during mechanical ventilation. This pattern reliably detected partial endotracheal obstruction during volume and pressure controlled mechanical ventilation. A change in compliance of the respiratory system modifies the elastic recoil and this also affects the rate of the expiratory flow and the shape of its signal. In a porcine model, lung volume gains on the flow signal generated by the heartbeats (cardiogenic oscillations) provided information about the compliance of the respiratory system during ongoing mechanical ventilation In conclusion analyzing the flow signal during ongoing ventilation can be a cheap, non-invasive and reliable tool to monitor the elastic and resistive properties of the respiratory system including the endotracheal tube.

Generell anestesi kan ges som inhalationsanestesi eller total intravenös anestesi (TIVA). En förutsägbar anestesi med snabbt uppvaknande och bibehållen vakenhet är en högt önskvärd egenskap oavsett anestesiform. Det råder en klinisk och vetenskaplig diskussion om vilken anestesiform som ger snabbast tidig postoperativ återhämtning. syftet med studien var att jämföra patienters tidiga postoperativa återhämtning efter inhalationsanestesi respektive efter total intravenös anestesi (TIVA). Metoden var en litteraturstudie baserad på 15 vetenskapliga artiklar. Dessa analyserades utifrån frågeställningen: Vilken anestesiform som ger den snabbaste tidiga postoperativa återhämtningen. Det framkom en indelning av resultatet i tre kategorier: snabbare tidig postoperativ återhämtning efter inhalationsanestesi, lika lång tid till återhämtning efter inhalationsanestesi som efter TIVA samt snabbare tidig postoperativ återhämtning efter TIVA. Resultatet visade att inhalationsanestesi gav snabbast tdiig postoperativ återhämtning. Anestesisjuksköterskans handhavande, planering och erfarenhet påverkar patientens uppvakande. därför skulle vidare forskning istället jämföra dessa båda anestesiformer på ett annat sätt. Tiden kunde istället mätas från det att anestesisjukskäterskan extuberat patienten och till payienten verkar adekvat orienterad för att erhålla ett mer jämförbart resultat. / General anesthesia includes both inhalations anesthesia and total intravenous anesthesia (TIVA). After any anesthetic technique a de sirable characteristics is a predictably rapid emergence and sustained alertness. There is a clinical and scientific debate about which anesthetic technique who gives the most rapid emergence in the early postoperative recovery. The aim of this study was to compare patients early postoperative recovery after inhalations anesthesia and after total intravenous anesthesia (TIVA). The methods are based on 15 research articles. They where analysized from the questionnaire: which anesthetic technique gives the most rapid emergence in the early postoperative recovery. The results showed that inhalations anesthesia gave the most rapid emergence in the earky postoperative recovery. The nurse anesthetist handling, planning and experience affect the patients awakening. Therefore further research instead could compare these anesthetic techniques in another way. The time after the nurse anesthetist has extubate the patient until the patient is adequate orientated, could be measured to find a more comparable result.

Severe Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI) and aneurysmal Subarachnoid Hemorrhage (SAH) are severe cerebral emergencies. They are common reasons for extensive morbidity and mortality in young people and adults in the western world. This thesis, based on five clinical studies in patients with severe TBI (I-IV) and SAH (V), is concentrated on examination of pathophysiological developments and of evaluation of therapeutic approaches in order to improve outcome after cerebral emergency. The treatment for severe TBI patients at Umeå University Hospital, Sweden is an intracranial pressure (ICP)-targeted therapy according to “the Lund-concept”. This therapy is based on physiological principles for cerebral volume regulation, in order to preserve a normal cerebral microcirculation and a normal ICP. The main goal is to avoid development of secondary brain injuries, thus avoiding brain oedema and worsened microcirculation. Study I is evaluating retrospectively 41 children with severe TBI, from 1993 to 2002. The boundaries of the ICP-targeted protocol were obtained in 90%. Survival rate was 93%, and favourable outcome (Glasgow Outcome Scale, score 4+5) was 80%. Study II is retrospectively analysing fluid administration and fluid balance in 93 adult patients with severe TBI, from 1998 to 2001.The ICP-targeted therapy used, have defined fluid strategies. The total fluid balance was positive day one to three, and negative day four to ten. Colloids constituted 40-60% of total fluids given/day. Severe organ failure was evident for respiratory insufficiency and observed in 29%. Mortality within 28 days was 11%. Study III is a prospective, randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial in 48 patients with severe TBI. In order to improve microcirculation and prevent oedema formation, prostacyclin treatment was added to the ICP-targeted therapy. Prostacyclin is endogenously produced, by the vascular endothelium, and has the ability to decrease capillary permeability and vasodilate cerebral capillaries. Prostacyclin is an inhibitor of leukocyte adhesion and platelet aggregation. There was no significant difference between prostacyclin or placebo groups in clinical outcome or in cerebral microdialysis markers such as lactatepyruvate ratio and brain glucose levels. Study IV is part of the third trial and focus on the systemic release of pro-inflammatory mediators that are rapidly activated by trauma. The systemically released pro-inflammatory mediators, interleukin-6 and CRP were significantly decreased in the prostacyclin group versus the placebo group. Study V is a prospective pilot study which analyses asymmetric dimethylarginine (ADMA) concentrations in serum from SAH patients. Acute SAH patients have cerebral vascular, systemic circulatory and inflammatory complications. ADMA is a marker in vascular diseases which is correlated to endothelial dysfunction. ADMA concentrations in serum were significantly elevated seven days after the SAH compared to admission and were still elevated at the three months follow-up. Our results show overall low mortality and high favourable outcome compared to international reports on outcome in severe TBI patients. Prostacyclin administration does not improve cerebral metabolism or outcome but significantly decreases the levels of pro-inflammatory mediators. SAH seems to induce long-lasting elevations of ADMA in serum, which indicates persistent endothelial dysfunction. Endothelial dysfunction may influence outcome after severe cerebral emergencies.

Although survival rates are increasing, brain injury continues to be a leading cause of death after cardiac arrest (CA). Permanent brain damage after CA is determined by limited tolerance to ischemia from CA and cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR), as well as the unique cerebral response to reperfusion after return of spontaneous circulation (ROSC). A major pathway leading to neurotoxic cascade and neuronal injury after CA involves the increased presence of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species generated during ischemia and reperfusion. The magnitude of cerebral oxidative injury induced by free radicals increased with the duration of CA (Paper I). Nitric oxide (NO), a free radical responsible for the formation of reactive nitrogen species, is increased during global ischemia from CA and reperfusion (Paper IV). Hypothetically, the administration of a drug that counteracts the overproduction of NO and also acts as a scavenger of oxygen free radicals might be warranted in order to reduce the damage caused by nitrosative and oxidative stress. For these purposes we used methylene blue (MB), an old dye that has been used in medicine for almost half a century, and an experimental pig model of 20 min of ventricular fibrillation (VF) to reflect a clinical scenario of ischemia/reperfusion injury. Administration of MB added to a hypertonic-hyperoncotic solution (MBHSD) that was started during CPR and continued for 50 min after ROSC increased short-term survival by decreasing myocardial damage, as well as cerebral peroxidation and inflammatory injury (Paper II). Immunostaining of cerebral tissue collected at different time points after CA and ROSC (Paper IV) provided experimental evidence that cortical blood-brain barrier (BBB) disruption begins as early as  during the initial phase of untreated as well as treated CA. The results indicated that MB administration reduced the neurologic injury and BBB disruption considerably, but did not reverse the ongoing detrimental processes. The demonstrated positive effects of MB were related to a decrease of nitrite/nitrate tissue content, and thus to a decrease of excess NO due to the MB inhibitory effects on NOS isoforms. A mixture of MB in hypertonic sodium lactate (MBL) was investigated to facilitate administration of MB in “the field.” Based on findings that MBL cardio- and neuroprotective properties were similar to those of MBHSD, there is reason to believe that the use of MBL might be extended during ongoing CPR and after ROSC (Paper III). It would therefore make sense to try using MB as a pharmacological neuroprotectant during or after clinical CPR in order to expand the temporal therapeutic window before other measures for neuroprotection such as hypothermia are available.