This dissertation examines the faunal remains from a series of Neolithic archaeological sites located in Central Anatolia dated from the 9th to the 6th millennium cal BC. The purpose of this research is to reinterpret previously published faunal datasets and present new faunal data from Central Anatolia in order to elucidate subsistence patterns for this region The research is divided into two sections. The first section will review published palaeoenvironmental, archaeological and zooarchaeological data which have been used to established subsistence behaviour for the region. Critical to this review is the addition of new zooarchaeological data sets from Asikli Hoytuk and the renewed excavations at Catalhoyiik (East). The second section presents the results of the zooarchaoelogical analysis of faunal remains from the newly excavated sites at Pinarbasi A and B located on the Konya Plain in Central Anatolia. Pinirbasi , Site A is the earliest excavated site in Central Anatolia, dated at 8500 cal BC; Site B is contemporaneous with the latter part of the Catalhoyuk (East) sequence and is dated at 6400 cal BC. The re-examination of faunal data published from Central Anatolian sites appear to contradict commonly accepted patterns which characterise the Region as the centre of cattle domestication for the Near East. Based on the faunal data analysed, there is not enough data to currently state that cattle were locally domesticated within Central Anatolia and then distributed outwards to other centres. The examination of Pinarbasi A faunal data indicates hunting and broad spectrum subsistence was practiced at 8500 cal BC in Central Anatolia. However, due to the small morphological size of sheep bones recovered, herding is speculated. In addition, there is also evidence of longer, semi-sedentary occupation of the site due to the presence of cultural material that includes indigenous microlith tools and stone and mud brick foundations. Pinarbasi B' s faunal assemblage revealed subsistence practices characteristic of a herd based economy. Sheep and goat remains dominate the assemblage in addition to the continuation of seasonal hunting of larger wild taxa. Based on the new data from Pinarbasi Site A and B, and the reanalysis of new and existing faunal data, it is argued that Central Anatolian settlement and subsistence patterns did not display a pattern of gradual change in subsistence from hunting and gathering to plant and subsequently animal domestication that appear in the rest of the Levant but rather the domestication of animals appears to be quite early based on Central Anatolia's present chronological composition. Central Anatolian sites appear to be settled with domestic caprines. It is only speculated that in later levels of Catalhoyuk (East), Erbaba and Catalhoyuk (West) that domestic cattle will be found.

This thesis investigates the surviving architecture built in Anatolia from circa 1170 to 1220, a period that encompasses the rule of the Rūm Saljūq sultans Kılıç Arslān II to ʿIzz al-Dīn Kay Kāwūs I. This was the period which saw the development of a discernible Rūm Saljūq architectural aesthetic across the lands under their control. Due in part to the accident of survival, the main focus is on imperial structures, beginning with the palace kiosk of Kılıç Arslān II in Konya and ending with the hospital and tomb of ʿIzz al-Dīn Kay Kāwūs I in Sivas. The thesis begins with a linear chronology of the various Turko-Muslim dynasties in the region, focussing primarily on the Rūm Saljūqs. This provides the historical and political context within which the corpus of buildings was created, and is based primarily on Arabic, Persian and Byzantine chronicles, augmented by the most recent scholarship. The second chapter studies the surviving corpus of portals, along with a number of tombs, and the monumental minaret attached to the qibla wall of the Great Mosque in Sivas. This reveals the range of patterns and forms which were employed to create an identifiably Islamic aesthetic. The portals are all stone, while the tombs may be in brick or stone. The minaret is entirely brick-built, and the analysis of the brick and glazed tile structures demonstrates the wide ranging connections to Persianate architecture, especially the Ildegüzid architecture of Nakhchivān and Marāgha. Chapter three is divided into two sections, with the first consisting of analysis of the various constituent materials used to construct the corpus. The palace kiosk of Kılıç Arslān II in Konya is used as a case study throughout the first part of the chapter. The second section examines working methods, and concludes with a hypothesis as to the division of roles among the skilled craftsmen and semi-skilled labourers responsible for constructing the buildings under discussion. The fourth chapter is devoted entirely to the hospital and tomb of ʿIzz al-Dīn Kay Kāwūs I in Sivas. Along with revealing hitherto unstudied decorative elements of the complex, the analysis shows that the tomb was part of the original design schema. This is in contrast to the currently accepted view of scholars that it was added after the death of ʿIzz al-Dīn Kay Kāwūs I by his brother, rival and successor, ʿAlāʾ al-Dīn Kay Qubādh I. The detailed analysis of the minaret added to the Great Mosque in Sivas, along with the nearby tomb and hospital, all built during the reign of ‘Izz al- Dīn Kay Kāwūs I, suggests an increased importance of that city to the dynasty which cannot be perceived from the literary sources alone. The thesis concludes with an overview of sultanic and royal female patronage during Rūm Saljūq rule, followed by a number of avenues for further enquiry.

The Galatians were a group of Celts who arrived in Anatolia from the west in 278 B.C. According to the historical sources, they earned their livelihood by plundering and by serving as mercenaries in the eastern Mediterranean. Ancient authors state that the Galatians constituted a definite threat to the cities of western Asia Minor before they were settled in central Anatolia. Galatia became a Roman province in 25 B.C.; by that time, the Galatians had been thoroughly absorbed by the local population. The purpose of this paper is to see what archaeological evidence exists for the presence of the Galatians in Anatolia during the pre-provincial period, and how that evidence can be obtained. Three types of evidence are examined: pottery, burials and grave goods, and forts and settlements. Galatian pottery is still a controversial subject requiring more study and excavation. Only one burial site, Karalar, can definitely be identified by an inscription in Greek. The evidence from this site suggests that the Galatians adopted various types of Hellenistic tomb architecture and that they placed a fundamentally Hellenistic selection of grave goods within their tombs and graves. Galatian burials are therefore hard to distinguish from ordinary Hellenistic burials in Anatolia. Three tores and three fibulae from burials at Karalar, Bolu, and Bogazk5y are probably Celtic; that there are so few of them suggests that they had been imported from Europe, and that the Galatians were not themselves metalworkers in the Celtic tradition. Such objects cannot be used as the sole means of identifying Galatian burials. The situation is little better for forts and settlements. Some have been identified because they were inhabited by literate people before or after the arrival of the Galatians; others have been suggested because of the likelihood of their location. Settlement seems to be more dense west of the Halys but more surveys and excavation are necessary to test this emerging pattern. So far, the pre-provincial period has yielded little in the way of archaeological evidence for the presence of the Galatians in Anatolia, despite the solid background provided by the historical sources. The Galatians had little connection with the European Celts and adapted easily to local customs. This capacity for adaptation makes it difficult to say what is Galatian and what is Anatolian Hellenistic. Only further work in the field can remedy this state of affairs. / Arts, Faculty of / Classical, Near Eastern and Religious Studies, Department of / Graduate

The Paşalar fauna is found to include four suoid species including two listriodont pigs, Listriodon ef. splendens and Listriodon sp. nov., a tetraconodont, Conohyus simorrensis (sensu lato) and a peccary, Taucanamo inonuensis. This assemblage of folivores and "omnivores" presumably veflects the presence of relatively lush vegetation in the area. The cooccurrence of a derived sublophodont listriodont, Listriodon sp. nov., of roughly similar evolutionary grade to the late early Miocene European species Listriodon lockharti (from MN 4b and 5 localities of Europe) with the lophodont form Listriodon ef. splendens (MN 6-MN 9 localities of Europe suggests that the Paşalar fauna is referrable to MN 6, ea. 15 Ma, or possibly somewhat younger. While the Paşalar suoid assemblage shows broad Eurasian affinities, Listriodon sp. nov. and Taucanamo inonuensis provide evidence for a certain degree of endemism. We hypothesize here that this endemism developed after the late Burdigalian marine regression (ca. 17 Ma, and taken here as being chronologically equivalent to MN4b and lower MN 5), which promoted active Eurasian and African faunal exchanges.

This thesis is an interdisciplinary comparative analysis of the socio-economic developments of three regions in Anatolia: Lycia, Isauria and north central Anatolia in the late antique period (c. AD 330-600s). I present the most up-to-date picture of late antique settlement in these regions by collating recent evidence, particularly amphorae and settlement remains, derived from research conducted in these regions over the past few decades. From this picture, I analyse what the location of settlement and archeological remains within sites may reveal concerning the ways in which settlements participated in local, region and interregional exchange networks. As these three regions share the common geographic features of bordering major maritime areas and encompassing mountainous interiors, I examine how geography may have impacted the location of settlement and the movement of goods and people. By integrating areas located on opposite Anatolian coastlines, I examine how differing maritime networks may have impacted settlement development. This tripartite comparison attempts to establish northern Anatolia alongside its southern counterpart in the discourse of late antique economy and settlement development. Alongside this regional analysis, I discuss methodological considerations, such as the ways in which the current state of research and various research methods impact our analysis and interpretation of late antique settlement development. This study reveals that sub-regions within Lycia, Isauria and north central Anatolia developed in diverse ways and that the ways in which each region participated in wider exchange differed. I argue that overarching narratives of development, such as 'prosperity' and 'decline' do not accurately reflect the development of these regions. In sum, this thesis contributes an up-to-date analysis of the settlement development of Lycia, Isauria and north central Anatolia to the wider discourse of late antique regional development, which engages and challenges discourse surrounding the economic development of these regions in Late Antiquity.

In central Anatolia, Turkey, a strand of the former northern Neotethys Ocean subducted northwards under the Eurasian (Pontide) active margin during Late Cretaceous–Early Cenozoic time. Subduction and regional plate convergence were associated with the generation and emplacement of accretionary complexes and supra-subduction zone-type ophiolites onto former passive margins of microcontinents. The resultant suture zones contain Late Cretaceous to Middle Eocene basins (“The Central Anatolian Basins”) including: 1) the Kırıkkale Basin; 2) the Çankırı Basin, 3) the Tuz Gölü Basin and; 4) the Haymana - Polatlı Basin. Using stratigraphic logging, igneous geochemistry, micropalaeontology and provenance studies, this study tests two end-member models of basin evolution. In model one, the basins developed on obducted ophiolitic nappes following closure of a single northern Neotethys Ocean during the latest Cretaceous. In model two, northern Neotethys comprised two oceanic strands, the İzmir-Ankara-Erzincan Ocean to the north and the Inner Tauride Ocean to the south, separated by the Niğde-Kırşehir microcontinent, which was rifted from the Gondwana continent to the south. In this scenario, the basins developed as accretionary-type basins, associated with north-dipping subduction which persisted until the Middle Eocene when continental collision occurred. Where exposed, the basements of the Central Anatolian Basins comprise the Ankara Mélange, a mainly Upper Cretaceous subduction-accretion complex and the western/northern margin of the Niğde-Kırşehir microcontinent. New geochemical data from the composite basement of the Kırıkkale Basin identify mid ocean-ridge basalt (MORB), here interpreted to represent relict Upper Cretaceous Neotethyan oceanic crust. During the latest Cretaceous, the Kırıkkale and Tuz Gölü Basins initiated in deep water above relict MORB crust and ophiolitic mélange, bordered by the Niğde-Kırşehir microcontinent to the east where marginal facies accumulated. Further west, the Haymana-Polatlı Basin represents an accretionary-type basin constructed on the Ankara Mélange. To the north, the Çankırı Basin developed on accretionary mélange, bounded by the Pontide active margin to the north. Palaeocene sedimentation was dominated by marginal coralgal reef facies and siliciclastic turbidites. Latest Palaeocene–middle Eocene facies include shelf-type Nummulitid limestone, shallow-marine deltaic pebbly sandstones and siliciclastic turbidites. This thesis proposes a new model in which two north-dipping subduction zones were active during the late Mesozoic within northern Neotethys. In the south, ophiolites formed above a subduction zone consuming the Inner Tauride Ocean until the southward retreating trench collided with the northern margin of the Tauride continent emplacing ophiolites and mélange. In the north, subduction initiated outboard of the Eurasian margin triggering the genesis of supra-subduction zone ophiolites; the subduction zone rolled back southwards until it collided with the Niğde-Kırşehir microcontinent, again emplacing ophiolites during latest Cretaceous time. Neotethyan MORB still remained to the west of the Niğde-Kırşehir microcontinent forming the basement of the Kırıkkale and Tuz Gölü Basins. Latest Palaeocene–middle Eocene regional convergence culminated in crustal thickening, folding, uplift and strike-slip faulting which represent final continental collision and the geotectonic assembly of central Anatolia.

Feasting and shared drinking are long suspected to have been practiced in Anatolian settlements during the Early Bronze Age (EBA). New drinking vessels of metal and ceramic seem meant for drinking together with others. Platters and bowls seem intended to display food and vessel handling. No study has examined these practices in detail. This is largely because of a lack of evidence for the production of special beverages, for instance wine, beer, or mead. The Early Bronze Age is a period of intensifying personal distinction. It is characterised by developments in metallurgy, craft production, long-distance exchange, and at some sites, monumental architecture. Yet how EBA Anatolian communities were organised is unclear. A lack of writing and a limited number of seals suggest that there was no central administration within settlements. This contrasts with contemporaneous sites in southeastern Turkey and in Mesopotamia, whose metallurgy, craft production, architecture, and other developments were overseen by temple and palace complexes. This thesis uses feasting and drinking as a way to examine the social complexity of EBA Anatolian sites. It compiles evidence for these activities in both north-central and western Anatolia. It analyses the incidence of different drinking and pouring shapes across sites, and qualitatively assesses vessel features and the contexts in which they are found. This thesis also evaluates the role of drinking and feasting within settlements. It assesses the settings where drinking and feasting was practiced, together with other indices from each site. Two theoretical models are used to evaluate these activities. One details how the use of objects facilitate social relationships. Another specifies how communities may be organised. Both models provide a wide spectrum for assessing the drinking, feasting, and organisational evidence from sites. These models allow for variation: in how drink and food are used to form social relationships, and also in social complexity. The approach is able to distinguish between different organisational and social strategies across sites and regions. This detail is key for beginning to understand Anatolia's unique development during the period.

This dissertation examines five wooden hypostyle mosques built in Anatolia during the second half of the seventh/thirteenth century: the Sahip Ata Cami in Konya (656/1258) / the Ulu Camis of Afyon (671/1272) and Sivrihisar (673/1274-75) / the Ahi Serefettin Cami in Ankara (689/1289-90) / and the Esrefoglu Cami in Beysehir (696-698/1296-99). It aims primarily to explain how the condition of suzerainty prevailing after the Mongol Conquest in 641/1243 lead to the introduction of a new, wooden type of construction and caused it to proliferate. The dissertation employs a cultural-mode-of-production analysis to understand the circumstances of the type&rsquo / s introduction, with special emphasis on the place of wood in Islamic sacred building, the crisis of Islam after the Conquest, the cultural parameters of Seljuk patronage and the character of Mongol suzerainty.

This thesis investigates the morphological, chemical and growth characteristics of zircon mineral in relation with the granitoid petrology. Physical and chemical variations recorded within zircon crystals during evolution of the Central Anatolian Granitoids are discussed. The thesis focuses on twelve granitoid samples from the Ekecikdag, Aga&ccedil / &ouml / ren and Terlemez regions from western part of central Anatolia. These granitoids are differentiated into S- and H-type granitoids on the basis of field, petrographical and whole-rock geochemical aspects. In granitoids concerned, zircon is associated with biotite, allanite and plagioclase, and zircon populations mainly comprise P- and S-type zircon crystals, with rare G-, L- and J-types. Typology method combined with cathodoluminescence imaging revealed that S- and H-type granitoids show intrusive aluminous autochthonous and hybrid character, respectively. Zircons generally have euhedral to subhedral cores exhibiting zoning, although sometimes faint, but inherent and embayed cores also exist. Large scale, first order, and/or small-scale second order oscillatory zoning and effects of late stage recrystallization are observed within zircon crystals. Multi-corrosion zones within zircons are characterized by sharp changes in crystal forms with decreased Zr and Si, and increased U, Th and REE+Y contents, beside infrequent increase in Hf, Sc, Ta, Ti, Ca, Al and Fe elements. These zones are interpreted to be formed by transient heating of the resident felsic magma due to mafic melt contribution, at the time of mixing/mingling processes of the H-type granitoids, and then zircons re-grow in magma source reflecting a mafic character. Corrosion stages within zircons of S-type granitoids, on the other hand, were probably formed by mantle-derived melts producing heat for resorption of zircons without direct contribution.

The map of Iron Age Anatolia (ca. 1200-550 BCE, Turkey) is dotted by territorial kingdoms that rose and were subsumed into larger political entities throughout its history. Current archaeological narratives commonly place Lydia into this scene quite late in the Iron Age with the rise of its Mermnad elite in the seventh century BCE. Their power is well attested by the rapid expansion of their influence in Anatolia, as well as by their ambitious buildings programs that monumentalized their capital city Sardis. Among these programs, monumental urban terrace platforms hold a unique position, for they regularized the rugged topography of a naturally elevated district at the heart of Sardis, converting it into a visibly dominant promontory to house the Lydian palace. Until recently there were no precedents for these enormous man-made investments, hence the narrative of the Mermnad elite’s late and fast emergence and the reconstruction of Sardis as an agglomeration of small sites before their time. The fresh discovery of a long sequence of large-scale constructions (2000-700 BCE) in the city’s elite precinct now casts doubt on this narrative. In this dissertation, I study these early monumental constructions along with the later terraces to investigate the course of Lydian elite placemaking and their wider implications for Lydia’s place in Iron Age Anatolia. This research is multi-scalar, expanding out from a detailed study of architecture, to the place of terraces within the socio-spatial fabric of diachronic settlements at Sardis, and finally to wider regional Anatolian context. I begin with the examination of the corpus of urban terrace constructions in Sardis and their architectural design principles and dating evidence. Next, I compare the terraces to constructions from domestic neighborhoods as well as other Mermnad elite structures. Their scalar facets—large size, costly materials, and large labor requirements—mark them as monumental in each building episode. I consider symbolic and experiential facets using a variety of theoretical frameworks—memory, social submission, performance, and domination—to demonstrate how these terraces shaped their socio-spatial environments through ongoing claims of an old central precinct. This was achieved by introducing architectural novelties as well as more formality and regularity, employing transformative labor as a means of public spectacle and creating built representations of spatial control and domination. At the same time, I show the extent to which these practices foreshadow Mermnad elite placemaking ideologies. Thus, this research marks Lydian constructions in the ninth and eighth centuries BCE as productions of a previously unregistered early Lydian elite. I conclude by contextualizing early Lydian placemaking practices within Anatolia’s broader socio-political spheres. This study reveals terracing to demarcate elite space as a Lydian mode of placemaking and that in timing and ideology it followed the culture-political trajectories of Anatolia—by peer-polity competition—more so than those of the Aegean. As a result, I acknowledge the deeper history of the ruling elite in Lydia, one that reverses the narrative of a sudden, late, and rapid development fostered by the Mermnads. This study, thus, makes a place for Lydia in the Iron Age maps of Anatolia two centuries earlier than has been previously believed.