Two hundred forty beef calves (BW = 217 ± 20.6 kg) were used to evaluate performance, blood metabolites, and rumen development from feeding bermudagrass or ryegrass and rye baleage. Calves were stratified by BW, sex, and breed and assigned to one of 12 paddocks (0.40 ha each) with 4 treatment diets and fed for a 60 d backgrounding period. Diets included: early boot stage bermudagrass hay, (BERH); early boot stage ryegrass and rye baleage (ERRG); late bloom stage ryegrass and rye baleage, (LRRG); and early boot stage bermudagrass baleage, (BERB). Calves on BERH, LRRG, and BERB had free choice access to a 35% CP (as fed basis) liquid supplement. Body weights and rectal temperatures were collected on d -1, 0, 29, 30, 60, and 61 for comparison of BW, BW gain, ADG, and body temperature. Ruminal fluid and blood samples were collected for analysis of pH, NH3, VFA, PUN, and glucose from calves (n = 5 and 10/paddock, respectively) on d 0, 30, and 60. There was a treatment by day interaction (P < 0.01) for BW, temperature, PUN and ruminal pH. Body weights were heavier (P < 0.05) for LRRG compared with BERB and BERH, and heavier (P = 0.01) for ERRG compared with BERB on d 60, respectively. Body temperatures declined (P <0.01) from day 0 to 60. Plasma urea nitrogen was lowest (P <0.01) LRRG on d 30 compared with BERB and BERH; whereas, LRRG has the lowest (P <0.01) PUN on d 60 compared with the remaining treatments. Ruminal pH was lowest (P <0.01) for BERH and LRRG compared with ERRG on d 30, and highest (P <0.01) for ERRG on d 60 compared with BERB, respectively. Body weight gain and ADG were greater (P < 0.01) during the 60 d backgrounding period for calves fed ERRG and LRRG. A treatment effect existed for glucose where concentrations in the ERRG and BERH fed calves were greater (P <0.05) compared with the LRRG and BERB fed calves. A day effect for NH3 and glucose existed where concentrations decreased (P<0.01) from d 0 to 30 among all treatments. A treatment by day interaction existed (P =0.05) for butyrate where levels were greater for BERH and LRRG on d 30 compared with LRRG on d 60. Main effect of treatment (P <0.01) was observed for acetate and propionate, where BERB and LRRG had the lowest concentrations compared with ERRG and BERH. Performance of backgrounded calves fed ryegrass and rye baleage with or without supplementation, based on harvest stage, was improved over feeding bermudagrass hay with supplementation.

Variation in cryotolerance exists between embryos from different animal breed, species and management conditions. Reduced tolerance to chilling and cryotolerance of oocytes and embryos has been associated with greater cytoplasmic lipids (Kim et al., 2001; Seidel, 2006). Previous studies in the cow have demonstrated nutrition-induced modification of follicular components. Trans-10, cis-12 conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) was identified as a potent inhibitor of milk fat synthesis in lactating cows (Baumgard et al., 2000) and inclusion of CLA in bovine embryo culture medium improved post-thaw embryo survival (Pereira et al., 2007). Dietary supplementation of cows with CLA could alter oocyte fatty acid metabolism, oocyte lipid composition and embryo cryotolerance, and responses may be different between Bos indicus and Bos taurus breeds of cattle. Therefore, a series of experiments were conducted to evaluate effects of dietary CLA supplementation of cows on (1) milk fat depression in lactating Holstein cows, (2) follicle and oocyte production and lipid content of oocytes from Brahman and Holstein cows, (3) mRNA expression of genes involved in lipid metabolism in oocytes from Brahman and Holstein cows and (4) cryosurvival of in vitro-produced embryos from CLA-supplemented oocyte donor cows. Milk fat was depressed by 10.1% in lactating Holstein cows fed CLA. Follicle, oocyte and embryo production of cows were not influenced by CLA supplementation. Dietary supplementation of cows with CLA before oocyte collection did not influence cryotolerance of in vitro-produced embryos or expression of genes in oocytes involved in lipid metabolism. Lipid content of oocytes was not influenced by CLA supplementation. The ovarian response to dietary CLA was similar among Brahman, Holstein and crossbred beef cows. The highly regulated mechanisms involved in fatty acid uptake by ovarian components may help explain the lack of ovarian response to dietary CLA in the current study.

The first objective of the two studies in the research herein was to evaluate growth, performance and carcass quality and composition traits from a group of spring born calves sired by Charolais, Braunvieh, or Simmental bulls. Growth traits analyzed included birth weight (BW), weaning weight (WW), and hip height (HH). Carcass quality and composition traits analyzed included hot carcass weight (HCW), rib eye area (REA), back fat thickness (BF), marbling score (MS), and yield grade (YG). Analysis revealed Simmental sired calves were significantly heavier (P<.05) at birth when compared to Charolais and Braunvieh sired calves. Braunvieh sired calves were reported to be significantly (P<.05) shorter than Simmental sired calves for hip height. Hot carcass weight analysis revealed that Charolais sired calves were significantly (P<.05) heavier when compared to Braunvieh sired calves. No individual sire breed group displayed any significant differences for weaning weight, rib eye area, back fat thickness, marbling score, or yield grade. The second objective was evaluate potential SNP associations on four candidate genes with growth, performance, and carcass composition traits in a population of crossbred steers sired by Charolais, Braunvieh, and Simmental bulls. Traits analyzed for growth, performance, and carcass traits were previously mentioned. Analysis was performed on 38 steer calves. Single nucleotide polymorphisms within four candidate genes including Thyroglobulin (TG), Adiponectin (ADPOQ), Insulin like growth factor-1 (IGF-1), and Calpastatin (CAST) were chosen for analysis. A total of 14 SNP on TG, ADPOQ, CAST, and IGF-1 genes were significantly associated with birth weight and weaning weight. Analysis revealed 13 SNP on TG, ADPOQ, IGF-1, and CAST genes significantly associated (P<.05) with HCW, BF, MS, and YG. No markers were reported to be significantly associated (P<.05) with HH or REA. A total of 11 markers with 3 markers located on the ADPOQ gene, 1 marker located on the IGF-1 gene, 3 markers located on the TG gene, and 5 markers located on the CAST gene were significantly associated with both growth and carcass traits.

Reducing the particle size of sodium chloride crystal would increase its dissolution rate leading to a more efficient transfer of the ions to the taste buds and hence perhaps a saltier perception of foods. The objective of this study was to develop submicrosalt by using a nanospray drying method, its use in surface salted cheese crackers and evaluating their physico-chemical, microbiological and sensory characteristics. The cheese cracker treatments consisted of 3 different salt sizes (regular, microsalt and submicrosalt) and 3 different concentrations (2, 1.5 and 1%). The 9 (3 sizes x 3 concentrations) different cheese cracker treatments were tested for salt concentration and sodium content at week 1. Water activity, yeast and mold counts, texture-fracturability, color, and consumer test were determined at week 1 and 4 months of storage. Completely Randomized Design (CRD) with repeated measures was used for water activity, yeast and mold counts, texture-fracturability, and color. A Balanced Incomplete Block Design was used to conduct the consumer analysis of cheese crackers for submicrosalt (2, 1.5 and 1%), microsalt (2, 1.5 and1%) and regular 2% (control as used by industry) using 476 participants. Submicrosalt treatments (2, 1.5 and 1%) had positive effect in yeast reduction at 4 months compared to regular salt (2, 1.5 and 1%). There was no mold growth in all treatments at all times. The L*, b*, C* and h* values in all treatments increased significantly (P<0.05) from 1 week to 4 months. At 4 months, submicrosalt treatments (2, 1.5 and 1%) resulted in having significantly (P<0.05) more preferred saltiness scores compared to control (regular 2%). At 4 months, submicrosalt (1.5 and 2%) showed significantly (P<0.05) more preferred just about right saltiness scores compared to control. The reduction of 25 and 50% salt content in cheese cracker through use of submicro particulated salt maintained low counts in yeasts, no counts in molds and did not adversely influence sensory color, aroma, crunchiness, overall liking and acceptability scores, which were the same compared to control and microsalt treatments (2, 1.5 and 1%). Reduction in sodium chloride particle size 1000 fold from regular salt to submicrosalt increased saltiness but reduction in salt size 10 fold from microsalt to submicrosalt did not increase the saltiness of surface salted cheese crackers.

In vitro maturation (IVM) is a reproductive technique critical to in vitro embryo production (IVP) in commercial livestock industries, research, and human infertility treatment. Currently, IVP has low efficiency due to an inadequate IVM system in which premature meiotic resumption results in low oocyte viability. Meiotic arrest is regulated primarily by 3,5-cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP), and the most successful methods of improving IVM utilize cAMP modulators to maintain high intra-oocyte cAMP, delaying the onset of maturation. This thesis includes experiments comparing standard bovine IVM to a novel extended IVM method similar to the procedure described by Albuz and colleagues (Albuz et al., 2010). Bovine oocytes were obtained from mixed breed cattle by transvaginal ultrasound-guided aspiration. Oocytes from each cow were divided into two groups: standard IVM and extended IVM. Standard IVM consists of a 23-hour maturation composed of TCM-199 based media supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum, sodium pyruvate, pen/strep, glutamine, and FSH, and cultured in 5% CO2 at 39⁰C. Extended IVM is composed of two steps: a pre-IVM of HEPES-TALP supplemented with 100 µM forskolin (FSK) and 500 µM 3-isobutyl-1-methylxanthine (IBMX) for 2 hours at 39⁰C, and then an extended IVM consisting of standard maturation medium supplemented with 20 µM cilostamide for 31 hours (5% CO2, 39⁰C). Oocytes were sampled at various times throughout maturation depending on the experiment. Data was collected either by staining with aceto-orcein to determine nuclear status or by a cAMP ELISA after freezing in groups of ten. Data from the initial experiments showed that cAMP modulators significantly delayed maturation, but overall maturation rates were significantly less than standard IVM (44.5% vs. 81%). Results of the cAMP assay indicated a significant increase in cAMP within the first three hours of oocyte collection after using FSK and IBMX in collection media, but cAMP was not maintained in the cilostamide-only extended IVM medium. Additionally, cilostamide may have had a negative effect on the oocytes since there was a higher percentage arrested at MI in extended IVM.

Sixty-three neonatal Holstein calves (45 female; 18 male) were assigned to one of 3 treatments at d 2 of age to study effects of milk replacer feeding frequency on growth, performance, and health. Treatments consisted of 1X, with total amount of reconstituted milk replacer fed 1X/day at 6:00 a.m.; 2X, with total amount of reconstituted milk replacer divided into 2 equal amounts and fed at 6:00 a.m. and 5:00 p.m.; or 3X, with total amount of reconstituted milk replacer divided into 3 equal amounts and fed at 6:00 a.m., 12:00 noon, and 5:00 p.m. Calves were housed in individual hutches and fed milk replacer until abrupt weaning at 42 d of age. Total daily amount of milk replacer offered was equal to 1.5% of birth weight and reconstituted to a total volume of 10% birth weight. An 18% crude protein calf starter was offered ad libitum beginning on d 3 and fed throughout the duration of the trial. Water was offered ad libitum on d 3. Calves remained in their hutches until d 56 to determine immediate post weaning performance. BW was determined at birth and weekly throughout the trial. Wither height (WH), hip height (HH), and hip width (HW). Feed intake, water intake, and fecal scores were recorded daily. Blood samples were collected on d 14, 28, 42, and 56 for plasma urea nitrogen, plasma glucose concentration (PUN), and â-hydroxybutyrate (BHBA). Effects of treatment, week, and their interactions were analyzed using the MIXED procedure of SAS® (Cary, NC). There was no effect (P > 0.05) of treatment on BW, HH, HW, WH, PUN, plasma glucose concentrations, or BHBA. There was a week effect (P < 0.05) for grain and water intake, with all calves increasing intake throughout the duration of the study. There was no treatment effect (P > 0.05) for fecal scores, with calves scoring similarly throughout the project. No treatment effects were observed (P > 0.05) for PUN, glucose, or BHBA. Glucose concentrations decreased (P < 0.05) and PUN and BHBA concentrations increased (P > 0.05) as calves aged. Overall, milk replacer feeding frequency had no significant effects on growth or performance of these Holstein dairy calves fed MR once, twice, or three times daily.

The objectives of this research were to determine 1) the effect of anise oil (AO) in pigs after exposure and re-exposure by dietary additions to sow and nursery diets; and 2) the maximum level of AO that could be fed to broilers and its effect on in-vitro growth of Clostridium perfringens (ClP); 3) to determine the effect of AO and diet type on growth performance of broilers after a challenge with ClP; and 4) to determine the effect of AO fed to broilers under commercial conditions. The results indicated that exposing lactating pigs to AO through the sow diet had a positive effect on pig feed intake after weaning, improved nursery feed efficiency, and had a positive influence on growth performance. Feeding broilers more than 4000 ppm AO in their diet reduced broiler feed intake, and more than 2500 ppm AO reduced growth. In an in-vitro Exp., the antibiotic Bacitracin and anticoccidial Salinomycin completely inhibited ClP growth, and AO linearly reduced ClP growth to undetectable levels. Thus, AO could have antimicrobial activity against ClP in-vitro. During a challenge with ClP (d 10 with 2 x 109 CFU/ml), broiler feeding AO reduced broilers ADFI and ADG during the first 10 days. Necropsy of all broilers indicated that feeding AO reduced the lesions of the jejunum (LS) related to ClP challenge. In a second ClP challenge (3 x 106 CFU/ml, on d 10 and 13), fish meal (FM) improved growth performance of broilers and had no effect on LS related to ClP challenge compared broilers fed vegetable protein. Feed intake was not affected by AO in this study. Broilers were fed a 3-phase feeding program in a floor pen study, and the treatment diets were antibiotic free, antibiotic added, or AO (1000 ppm). Feeding AO had a similar effect to feeding antibiotic added diet on growth performance of broilers. In summary, AO stimulated pig feed intake after weaning and growth performance after re-exposure. Also, AO had antimicrobial activity against ClP growth in-vitro, reduced jejunum lesions related to ClP in-vivo, and can be an alternative to antibiotics fed as growth promotants for broilers.

Detection of estrus in white-tailed (WT) deer is laborious and often missed, as there are few visual cues presented during the 24 h period in which females are receptive to mating. Reproductive management of WT operations is improved by the use of fixed-timed artificial insemination (FTAI) protocols. Fixed-timed AI removes the need for estrus detection and ensures the breeding of an entire herd, as well as the ability to schedule fawning within predetermined timeframes. Two studies evaluated two FTAI regimens and their ability to synchronize estrous in WT. The first study implemented the administration of eCG 200 IU (im) at progesterone device removal (CIDR-g), which had been present for 14 d, followed by FTAI 60 h post-CIDR-g removal. Finding from this study demonstrated that eCG given at CIDR removal did not affect pregnancy rates, nor did the fecundity rates of does pregnant to FTAI differ from does pregnant from natural mating. Does that were inseminated ¡Ý60.5 h after CIDR-g removal were 22 times more likely to become pregnant following FTAI than does which were inseminated ¡Ü60.5 h post-CIDR-g removal. The second study evaluated the effect of GnRH administered at insemination on pregnancy rates following a 14 d CIDR-g regimen. Similar to the previous study, does inseminated beyond 60.5 h post-CIDR-g withdrawal were four times more likely to become pregnant to FTAI. The odds of pregnancy also increased 5 times when does were treated with GnRH. However, the pregnancy rates from this study were lower than those when eCG was given at CIDR-g withdrawal. In addition to improving WT estrous synchronization, FTAI can lead to further improvements in WT in vitro production and propagation of desired genetics throughout a herd. The third study evaluated the chemical components of two in vitro fertilization media (BIVF and DSOF) and their ability to induce capacitation and the acrosome reaction in WT epididymal spermatozoa. Induction of lipid disorder was more likely when spermatozoa were in the presence of BIVF than DSOF. Additionally, when compared to supplementation of sheep serum, heparin in BIVF was more likely to improve capacitation rates. However, higher levels of calcium concentrations in DSOF were twice as likely to induce the acrosome reaction (AR).

Two experiments were conducted to evaluate sugarcane biochar as a feed ingredient in commercial broiler diets. Experiment 1 was conducted for 11 days using 300 male Ross 708 broilers. Broilers were allotted to one of five treatment diets containing 0%, 0.5%, 1.0%, 2%, or 4% biochar. Experiment 2 was conducted for 19 days using 450 male Ross 708 broilers. Chicks were allotted to one of 9 treatment diets containing 0%, 0.25%, 0.5%, 0.75%, 1%, 1.25%, 1.5%, 1.75% or 2% biochar. Broilers and feed were weighed at day 0 and 10 in experiment 1 and day 0, 10 and 18 in experiment 2 to determine average daily gain (ADG), average daily feed intake (ADFI) and feed efficiency (Gain:Feed). The left tibia was collected from each broiler on day 10 (experiment 1) or day 18 (experiment 2) and used to determine bone breaking strength (BBS). Fecal samples were collected on day 10 (experiment 1) or day 10 and 18 (experiment 2) to determine dry matter (DM), nitrogen (N), and phosphorus (P) content. For experiments 1 and 2 treatment had no effect (P >0.05) on ADFI or BBS. Results from day 10 in experiment 1 and day 18 in experiment 2 did not show differences in fecal DM. Differences between treatments in fecal DM content were noted on day 10 of experiment 2. Experiment 1 determined broilers fed 4% biochar had lower (P<0.01) Gain:Feed than broilers fed other diets. No differences were noted in Gain:Feed in experiment 2 for birds fed biochar up to 2%. In experiment 2 birds fed 0.25% or 0.75% biochar on day 10 and 0.25% - 1.25% biochar on day 18 had increased fecal P. Further testing is required to determine the exact effects of feeding biochar on broiler fecal P.

Identification of fibres, particularly in blends, requires knowledge of their characteristics. Individual Identifying features between wool and mohair fibres were investigated in this study using a Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM), Fourier Transform Infrared-Attenuated Total Reflection (FTIR-ATR), Fourier Transform Raman and Atomic Force Microscope (AFM). This study confirmed that wool and mohair can be differentiated and identified in blends using the cuticle scale height (CSH) criterion, wool having an average CSH of 0.6 ± 0.1 μm and mohair having an average CSH of 0.4 ± 0.1 μm. The AFM provided highly reproducible CSH results, which also confirmed the SEM results that indeed wool and mohair could be differentiated using the CSH as criterion. The AFM gave a CSH value of 0.9 ± 0.2 μm for wool and 0.6 ± 0.2 μm for mohair, the difference between the two results being statistically significant according to the student t-test. It has been demonstrated that wool and mohair identification in blends is possible, by using the AFM to measure CSH, although the method is very time consuming and might be expensive. The FTIR-ATR showed similar spectra for wool and mohair fibres, confirming that the two fibre types consist of the same polymer material. Nevertheless, a difference was observed in the ratios of the relative intensities of the amide I (around 1630 cm-1) to the amide II (around 1515cm-1) absorption bands. The FT Raman provided similar spectra for the wool and mohair fibres, although a possible distinguishing feature between the two fibres could be the intensities of the alkyl side chains chemical band near 2940 cm-1 in the spectra of the two fibre types. According to the results obtained in this study, the FTIR-ATR and the FT Raman techniques may have potential for differentiating between wool and mohair but this requires further investigation.