The purpose of this study is to examine mitochondrial DNA variation in the Southwest Pacific and determine what factors contribute to the degree and patterning of the observed variation. Population variation is known to be influenced by factors including demographic history, natural selection, climate, isolation, island area/complexity, and population age, as older populations are generally more diverse. The groups compared are from three regions in the Southwest Pacific; (a) northeast New Guinea, (b) Manus in northern Island Melanesia and (c) Easter Island in eastern Polynesia. MtDNA surveys have revealed highly significant differences in molecular variance across these populations. According to traditional biogeographical theory, the likely determinants of these differences are (a) length of time since initial settlement, (b) the comparative isolation of particular islands or regions since settlement, and (c) the size and complexity of settlement areas. Evidence from archaeology and linguistics provides the necessary framework for the study. Detailed archaeological surveys for several of the study regions provides evidence for settlement dates as well as evidence for isolation and/or frequent contact with other areas, usually in the form of trade and translocation of animals and artifacts. Linguistics, though not as informative as archaeology for settlement dates, provides detailed evidence for isolation and/or contact in the form of language isolates, language families, borrowing and linguistic divergence. The mtDNA haplogroups found in this study belong to several documented haplogroups, some of Melanesian origin, and some of Southeast Asian origin. The distribution of mtDNA variants and the pattern and degree of variation was examined using Analysis of Molecular Variance, standard diversity measures and partial Mantel matrix correlations. There were strong positive correlations between insular area, isolation and degree of variation. There were also measurable differences between inland and coastal populations on the larger islands where diversity in the isolated inland populations was greater than diversity in the coastal population. While there was some confounding of the variables, the results of our analysis indicate that insular area/complexity and isolation influence the pattern of variance more than length of settlement time. / Anthropology

This thesis reports the results of the study of two Egyptian mummies housed at Tulane University since 1852. Background information includes an inventory of the Egyptian collection, as well as the results of research into the mummies' origin. The bodies were subject to a noninvasive, nondestructive study protocol, based on direct observation, stereoscopic microscopy and radiographic procedures Mummy 1 (Nefer Atethu, assigned name) was a subadult female who died from complications of childbirth between 12 and 16 years of age. An expansive disarticulation of the pelvic skeleton (dislocation of the symphysis pubis and symmetrical diastases of the sacroiliac joints), in the absence of any other sign of disease, supports the diagnosis. Her form of intentional mummification and degree of preservation are characteristic of the 21st dynasty (Third Intermediate Period) Mummy 2 (Got Thothi Aunk) according to the 19th century Egyptologists' research, was 'Chief of the Artificers of the Abode of Ammon,' and died during the rule of Osorkon III (23rd dynasty, 989 BCE). The unrolling of this mummy in Boston (1850) was a pivotal event that resulted in the arrival of the bodies in New Orleans a year later. Got Thothi Aunk died between 40 and 50 years of age from unknown causes. His body shows signs of osteoarthrosis, osteoporosis and chronic periodontal disease. The embalming of this body corresponds to the 21st dynasty. Further studies are recommended, with an emphasis on the preservation of these valuable bodies / acase@tulane.edu

In this dissertation, I examine patterns of biological affiliation in the Huaura Valley to reconstruct population history and structure during the Late Intermediate Period (LIP, A.D. 900/1000-1450). The LIP on the coast of Peru has been described as a period of social and political fragmentation between the collapse of the Wari State and the spread of the Inca Empire. However, the spread of the highly stratified Chimu Empire, the consolidation of the Chincha to the south, and the development of a series of regional polities on the central coast suggests a complex array of social, political, and economic relations. Based on archaeological and ethnohistorical evidence, the central coast polities were commercially oriented and organized by principles of kinship and territorial apportionment. However, the details of polity organization, their relationships to one another, and their role in broader regional dynamics are poorly understood. Focusing on the cemeteries of the Huaura Valley, I apply a biological distance approach to cranial nonmetric data from 18 LIP and Middle Horizon cemeteries. To assess patterns of interregional interaction, these data are compared to samples from the Huarmey, Chancay, and Canete Valleys. Nonmetric traits exhibiting low variability, age or sex association, or inter-trait correlation were removed from analysis. The final list of traits was analyzed using Smith's Mean Measure of Divergence, multidimensional scaling, and cluster analyses. Results indicate topographic patterning in the sample distances and the possibility of both northern and southern influence in the Huaura Valley. Surface interpolations of the distance statistics for each sample provide a more detailed picture of inter-cemetery variation. Since the organization of the Chancay and the Huaura Valley residents is poorly understood, I provide an experimental analysis of the nonmetric variation that maintains the individual as the unit of analysis (i.e. the cranial profile analysis). Results of the profile analysis indicate loose clustering of variation by cemeteries overall, with the presence of a few anomalous littoral samples. These results replicate the topographic pattering observed in the other analyses. I discuss the implications of these results within the context of archaeological and ethnohistorical hypotheses regarding LIP socio-political organization / acase@tulane.edu

The focus of this dissertation is to assess the efficacy of current, manual craniofacial reproductive techniques using a series of controlled cases. Blind craniofacial reproductions were made by the same practitioner on 35 skulls of male and female Euroamericans ranging in age from 50--61. Photographs of the final facial reproductions were then compared to a photo gallery containing pictures of over 5000 individuals. Included in the comparison photo gallery were the in vivo photographs of the 35 research subjects. The comparison was made using the same facial recognition software that is used by international law enforcement agencies. Of the 35 test cases, 23 were considered by the software to be a match / acase@tulane.edu

This dissertation provides the first in-depth bioarchaeological analysis of human skeletal remains from the Late Postclassic regional Maya capital of Mayapan, Yucatan, Mexico. This study tests the hypothesis that the bioarchaeological evidence is consistent with Colonial accounts of frequent warfare and social strife at Mayapan. Frequencies of ante-, peri- and postmortem trauma were calculated for element portions, whole bones and individuals. To determine if particular subgroups were targeted, data were collected on age, sex and dental metrics and nonmetrics. Moderate frequencies of healed postcranial fractures were found, with most concentrated in the hands and feet. A high frequency of healed cranial trauma was found, mostly affecting frontal bones of males. Several head wounds appear to bear the imprint of the weapon responsible and thus were likely due to violence. Two cases of perimortem depressed cranial fractures were identified in the alley beside round structure Q-152. Identification of perimortem penetrating injuries of the thorax confirmed several suspected cases of violent death based on anomalous burials, in particular the mass graves associated with structures Q-162 and Q-79. The latter case presents a flint arrowhead embedded in a right scapula. Cut marks and chop marks were found in a number of bones from various parts of the skeleton and mainly represent postmortem manipulation. The mandible is a commonly modified element, which corresponds with Landa's assertion that mandibles were taken from victims of war as trophies. In addition, a calvaria exhibiting numerous cutmarks and two holes with polished edges, one at the apex and one in the base, suggests vertical placement on a pole for display. Overall, the bioarchaeological evidence is consistent with Colonial accounts of frequent warfare and social strife at Mayapan. This study demonstrates the utility of the contextual analysis of human remains, even fragmentary ones, to advancing our knowledge of ancient violence / acase@tulane.edu

Coles Creek diet traditionally was believed to have been based on maize agriculture due to the number, size, and complexity of Coles Creek sites. However, direct archaeological evidence in the form of maize kernels and pollen generally has been lacking. This bioarchaeological study of nine skeletal samples from the southern Lower Mississippi Valley further supports the view that Coles Creek diet was not based on maize agriculture. Data from stable isotopes, dental, and skeletal pathologies were evaluated by comparisons to data from hunter-gatherer, mixed, and agricultural populations taken from the literature, through the use of a modified Dental Pathology Profile (DPP), and among temporal and regional categories defined by the populations examined in this study Based on the modified DPP and comparisons to the literature, the Coles Creek data collected in this study are more similar to hunter-gatherer populations or those with a transitional-mixed subsistence base than to agricultural populations. Dental pathologies and stable isotopes indicate that, though their consumption gradually increased, dietary carbohydrates remained a minor component of the diet throughout the Coles Creek period. Also, non-specific pathologies in both adults and subadults indicate that childhood morbidity and mortality increased during this time. Finally, data from this study suggest that regional differences in resource exploitation existed between coastal and inland populations during the Coles Creek period / acase@tulane.edu

<p>The study of culture in wild animals has received wide theoretical and empirical attention, providing preliminary evidence of at least rudimentary culture across a broad range of taxa. However, the majority of previous studies of animal cultural behavior have focused on demonstrating the existence of behavioral variants across study sites, armed only with an assumption that ecological and genetic alternatives are unlikely to sufficiently explain observed geographic variation in behavior. Moreover, previous studies have reported the presence of behavioral variation at the level of the population, without first confirming the presence of such variation in individual repertoires, which could create artificial patterns within or between populations. </p><p>Using more rigorous methods than previous studies, I examined rarely tested alternatives to field-based claims of cultural repertoire variation based on ecological heterogeneity and genetic variation. This dissertation relies on a natural experiment to compare two wild orangutan populations. Sungai Lading, a previously unstudied, high-density population of wild Pongo pygmaeus wurmbii, was compared to Tuanan, a P.p.wurmbii population separated from Sungai Lading by an impassable river barrier, but ranging in a broadly similar habitat. Preliminary genetics results indicate that at least some individuals from both sites cluster in the same mitochondrial subclade and that low levels of gene flow must have occurred between the two sites. Even after applying rigorous controls for variation in sampling intensity for individual orangutans, several differences in innovative behaviors exhibited at each site were identified, many of which occurred in the nesting context.</p><p>The orangutan is a model taxon for such an investigation, because wild populations exhibit a wide range of sociality, which has been linked to opportunities for social learning. Comparisons between the Tuanan and Sungai Lading populations indicated that cultural variants observed at only one site clustered significantly by population, although only dietary differences were unique at both sites. Orangutans at Sungai Lading maintain significantly lower rates of female-female association and lower individual repertoire sizes of putative cultural variants, a result that is consistent with the possibility that the orangutans of Sungai Lading may have reduced opportunities for social learning as a result of severe population compression, which could constrain opportunities for cultural transmission of key innovative behaviors. </p><p>From a broader perspective, the patterns revealed in this study strongly suggest that the last common ancestor of Homo and Pongo shared culturally modified behavior. They further suggest that the extent of cumulative cultural behavior in humans may surpass that of orangutans as a result of lost opportunities for social transmission, owing to varying degrees of limited association among group members.</p> / Dissertation

<p>There has been a trend toward decreasing skeletal robusticity in the genus Homo throughout the Pleistocene, culminating in the gracile postcrania of living modern humans. This change is typically attributed to changing tool technologies and subsistence patterns among human groups. However, other mammalian groups also experience a similar change in their postcranial strength over the same time period. It is proposed in this dissertation that ecological variables are correlated with measures of postcranial strength and may be a better explanation for Holocene skeletal gracilization in humans, as well as in other mammalian genera. This hypothesis is investigated through a close examination of the scaling patterns in two extant genera, Canis and Ursus, and a comparison of scaling patterns and relative strength of different species of Canis, including a fossil species that provides information about temporal change. Measurements of limb length, joint surface area, bone diameter, and strength measurements derived from radiographic images of long bone midshafts of North American specimens of Canis, (including the fossil Canis dirus) and Ursus were collected. Scaling patterns of the cross-sectional variables on limb length and joint surfaces were analyzed for the interspecific and intraspecific samples. </p><p>The first hypothesis tested was that Canis scales with geometric similarity of cross-sectional variables on bone length and body mass, and the Ursus scales with elastic similarity. Larger Canis have relatively stronger postcrania than smaller Canis. The primary way in which this strength is achieved in larger individuals is through a relatively shortening of the bone length. The second hypothesis tested was that postcranial strength is correlated with ecological variables. To investigate this hypothesis, scaling patterns of different species of Canis were compared, including the fossil dire wolf. The results show that the dire wolf is relatively stronger than its living congenerics. There is also a strong relationship between the ratio of prey body mass to predator body mass and relative strength for these species. Carnivores that are hunting animals much larger than themselves must have postcranial skeletons that are strong enough to withstand the loading of the skeleton that occurs during hunting, taking down, and processing large herbivores.</p> / Dissertation

<p>Delacour's langurs (<italic>Trachypithecus delacouri</italic>), one of the six limestone langur taxa of Southeast Asia, inhabit isolated, rugged limestone karst mountains in Northern Vietnam, although the reason for their current restriction to this habitat is unclear. The occupation of karst habitats by limestone langurs has been attributed to the refuge these rocky outcrops provide in a dramatically anthropogenically-altered landscape. Conversely, several ecological explanations have been proposed to account for their distribution, though the ecology of wild Delacour's langurs had yet to be studied. In this dissertation, I quantified the foraging ecology of Delacour's langurs living on Dong Quyen Mountain in Van Long Nature Reserve, Vietnam to address if these langurs show special adaptations to limestone karst or if they are exploiting a refuge habitat into which they have been pushed. I quantified their foraging ecology by systematically investigating their diet and feeding ecology, the chemisty of their eaten leaves, and the locomotions and substrates they utilized. </p> <p>From August 2007 through July 2008, I used instantaneous focal-animal sampling during all-day follows of Delacour's langurs on Dong Quyen Mountain. I collected data on activity budget, diet, and positional behavior. I also collected samples of soils and eaten and uneaten leaves which were tested for phytochemical content. </p> <p>With nearly 79% leaves in the diet, 60% of which were young leaves, Delacour's langurs are among the most folivorous of studied colobines, and- along with the closely related <italic>T. leucocephalus</italic> of southern China- the most folivorous of the Asian langurs. None of the plants that were important in the Delacour's langur diet were endemic limestone plants, and therefore feeding dependence alone cannot explain the current distribution of limestone langurs on karst habitat. Langurs ate leaves with high protein:fiber ratios, and despite a high percentage of carbon in the soil, young leaves were available throughout the year and plant defenses did not seem to have a large impact on eaten leaves. Delacour's langurs spent nearly 80% of their time on rocks. Quadrupedalism was their dominant locomotor style, more than double that of climbing. Terrestrialism, however, does not adequately describe the dangerous locomotion of these langurs; they are cliff-climbers. Delacour's langurs leapt only 6% of the time, much less than other African and Asian colobines, but their morphology (intermembral index) does not suggest terrestrialism or an evolutionary adaptation for limestone karst. Delacour's langurs appear to be a flexible taxon occupying a refuge habitat into which they have pushed. However, this restricted limestone habitat does not appear limiting in resources. The population at Van Long Nature Reserve is increasing which means that- if protected- this local population can rebound. Persistent hunting for traditional medicine and the more recent emergence of quarrying limestone for cement, however, threatens their survival.</p> / Dissertation

<p>Reconstructing locomotor patterns from fossils is crucial for understanding the origins of primates and important transitions in various primate clades. Recent studies suggest that the semicircular canals of the inner ear provide evidence about locomotion. The canals sense rotational head accelerations and drive reflexes essential for normal movement. Because bony aspects of canal morphology influence canal sensitivity, this system can be studied in osteologic specimens and fossils. Variation in canal morphology in living and, by inference, extinct primates has been attributed to interspecific differences in locomotor behavior. However, the manner in which movement selects for canal morphology is debated, alternative scenarios are plausible, and no relevant measurements are available documenting head movements in primates.</p><p>To refine proposed links between canal morphology and locomotor function, and to resolve conflicting functional interpretations, this study examines head rotations in lemurs and lorises exhibiting diverse locomotor behaviors. Three-dimensional kinematic analyses were used to characterize angular velocities of the head during locomotion. These data are used to test hypotheses concerning intraspecific, interspecific, and body-size dependent variation in head rotations. Cranial CT scans are used to model canal sensitivity to rotations in different directions. Observed patterns of head rotation are compared to predicted patterns of sensitivity to test hypotheses about the relationship between locomotor behavior and canal design.</p><p>Evaluation of existing locomotor inferences reveals that brain size exerts a significant effect on canal size and that the prevailing equations for predicting agility from body and canal size are highly inaccurate. Intraspecific comparisons between maps of observed angular velocity and predicted sensitivity allow identification of map types associated with different general locomotor modes and do not support existing hypotheses about the primary selective forces acting on canal morphology. The new data are used to formulate and test a novel "fast-accurate hypothesis" to explain why all vertebrates are more sensitive to rotations about some axes than others. The fast-accurate hypothesis stipulates that angular velocities presented about axes of mean sensitivity are most accurately interpreted by the brain, and that selection aligns axes of mean sensitivity with axes of habitually fast rotation because accurate perception of rapid rotations confers survival benefit. The fast-accurate hypothesis was used to predict which features of the canals should be correlated with high mean angular velocities of head movement. Novel equations that predict behavior from these newly identified canal morphologies were generated and found to outperform existing equations when tested on the original sample of 11 strepsirrhine species.</p> / Dissertation