<p> One of the most distinctive forms to come out of the Medio period (AD 1200&ndash;AD 1475) Casas Grandes ceramic tradition were human effigy vessels. These vessels exhibit primary and secondary sexual traits, and the males and the females are seated in different postures. The males are usually seated in a squatted position, whereas the females typically sit with their legs straight out. To see if these vessels reflected real-life habitual postures, Medio period skeletal remains from Paquim&eacute; were examined. Habitual actions leave markers on the skeleton, and one such marker is squatting facets. These facets occur on the tibia and talus, and as the name suggests are indicative of habitual squatting. Given the postures of the male vessels, it was expected that the male skeletal remains would have a higher frequency of squatting facets. This is not the case. Instead, the female remains have a significantly higher frequency of squatting facets. This is likely due to the posture assumed when grinding corn, a traditionally female activity. I suggest that the positions assumed by the vessels are the typical postures for social or ritual activities (not day-to-day activities), and that the ceramic effigy vessels represent specific individuals or specific subsets of the population.</p>

<p> Major changes to lifeways, such as settlement organization and subsistence economy, may have profound and long-lasting effects on the existence and survival of any society. This thesis uses broad-scaled but fine-grained paleopathological analysis to more fully understand a period of substantial cultural, social, and environmental change that occurred during the Late pre-Columbian period (AD 900&ndash;1600) in the Eastern Woodlands of North America. These changes were initiated by the Mississippian cultural phenomenon between AD 1000 and 1600. </p><p> Specifically, this research analyzes a skeletal collection derived from one of the largest Mississippian period communities in the lower Ohio River valley, the Angel site (12Vg1). While large-scale excavations occurred at Angel in the early and mid-20^th century, many aspects of life in this community remain unclear. A novel view of Angel is provided in this work, as it is the first to conduct a full skeletal analysis of the collection. This thesis has the unique ability to provide much-needed data concerning the processes behind the adoption of Mississippian lifeways specific to this region. Angel paralleled the sociocultural complexity of other mounded sites in the Eastern Woodlands but developed in an understudied area with regards to skeletal remains, the lower Ohio River valley. </p><p> This research adds to this body of knowledge. The pathologies examined in this research were specifically selected to explore various aspects of life influenced by the Mississippian culture. This study shed light on the impact of population aggregation, a heavy reliance on maize agriculture, the risk of bodily harm associated with daily activities and violent interactions, and overall levels of biological stress at Angel. </p><p> The broader impact of this research centers on its examination of a skeletal legacy collection that has been curated for over 70 years and is currently in the process of repatriation. This work is the last to directly examine the people who inhabited, created, and experienced the Angel community.</p><p>

<p> The primary theory for the peopling of Japan is the dual origin hypothesis that states there were two separate migrations into Japan separated by more than 10,000 years. The early migration involved the ancestors of the Jomon who in turn were ancestral to the Ainu populations in Hokkaido and Sakhalin. A later migration dating to about 2200 BP was comprised of Neolithic farmers known as the Yayoi. There is debate over the origins of both the Jomon and Yayoi, with the dual origin hypothesis positing that the Jomon are Southeast Asian in origin while the Yayoi are East Asian. Others postulate that Jomon origins could lie in Northeast Asia and the Yayoi in Southeast Asia. To re-examine this debate, dental morphological data were analyzed for Jomon (n=643) Ainu (n=285) individuals categorized by island: Honshu, Hokkaido, and Sakhalin. Trait frequencies were compared to East Asian, Southeast Asian, Polynesian, Micronesian, Melanesian, New Guinea, and Australian samples to explore population relationships. Sinodont/Sundadont traits were analyzed through ANOVA for Jomon, Ainu, East Asian, and Southeast Asian populations to determine which traits showed significant differences among the groups. Analysis shows the modern Japanese are quite distinct from, and not related to, the Jomon and Ainu. The most likely geographic origin for the Jomon is Southeast Asia. Gene flow between East and Southeast Asians from the early Holocene on may contribute to some of the problems of interpreting Jomon and Yayoi origins. A lack of significant differences for UI1 double shoveling, UM1 enamel extensions, UP1 root number, LM1 deflecting wrinkle, and cusp number LM2 shows the possibility of Holocene gene flow between East Asia and Southeast Asia. UI1 shoveling most strongly characterizes the migration patterns in the dual origin hypothesis. UI1 shoveling is a trait associated with the EDAR 370A gene variant as well as Sinodonty, meaning that the gene could aid in characterizing migrations into Japan.</p><p>

<p> The universality and importance of cooking both culturally and biologically is well established. Knowing when, where, and how in the archaeological record human groups began employing this practice can help answer questions concerning the timing and mechanism of both behavioral and anatomical changes in hominins. Identifying cooking in the archaeological record, however, is a complex taphonomic issue. When, where, and how hominins started controlling fire in the past is a greatly debated topic. Analyses of microscopic traces in soil and on bone may offer new lines of taphonomic evidence needed to demonstrate a specific use for fire. Specific cooking practices may also leave behind specific traces of macro-, micro-, faunal, and artifactual evidence. Previous research showed no change in the mineral component of human bone when boiled. To test the hypothesis that crystallinity changes also do not occur under low intensity thermal alteration, domestic pig limb bones were boiled for varying lengths of time. This study determined that even at longer periods of boiling, no observable change is observed in the crystallinity of the hydroxyapatite of bone. What was noted, however, was the existence of patina fractures on fleshed bone when boiled to certain lengths of time. Continued study of this novel observation may offer new insights into what degree of thermal intensity is needed for certain macroscopic observations and what micro- or primary structural properties of bone account for them. Other methods that examine the microstructure of bone may be able to detect changes that occur with low intensity thermal alteration that are unrelated to the state of the hydroxyapatite minerals. Further investigation is needed to understand which methods are best able, if possible, to identify differences that occur in bone that undergoes different diagenetic processes (i.e. weathering vs. low intensity thermal alteration vs. high intensity thermal alteration). Such investigations can illuminate how fire was utilized in the past.</p>

<p> Middle Mississippian is a both a cultural and temporal (1200 CE&ndash;1400 CE) archaeological context of Midwestern North America. This cultural tradition is associated with mound building, specific art motifs, arguably stratified societies, intensive agriculture, and specific ritual/mortuary practices. Burial sites can be very valuable to archaeologists because of the purposeful interaction between the living and the deceased and reconstruct cultural elements such as social identity and group membership. While American archaeology continues to be fieldwork-focused, there are a considerable amount of cultural resources housed in museum collections that could provide data for research into pre-Columbian lifeways in North America. This project used archived excavation information from past fieldwork to ask modern contextual questions about sites that are archaeologically inaccessible. These field notes and reports as well as a recent inventory of the curated human osteological remains were used to analyze the mortuary patterns (e.g., grave accompaniments, burial orientation, burial location, segregation by age or sex) of nine Middle Mississippian period sites from what is now the Kentucky Lake reservoir of west-central Tennessee. Among the results of the mortuary assessment is the recognition that sex, rather than rank or social role, is a primary identity marker.</p><p>

<p> Yokem Mounds and its neighboring lower Illinois River valley sites were part of a dramatic cultural shift that occurred during the transition from the Late Woodland period (A.D. 400-1050) to the Mississippian period (A.D. 1050-1400) of Illinois prehistory. Evident changes in diet, burial treatment, and material culture accompanied this transition at Yokem Mounds. What remains unknown is whether the transition co-occurred with a population displacement by originators of the Mississippian culture, the Cahokians, or other Mississippian immigrants. My ancient DNA analysis of Yokem Mounds 1-5 tackled this question, as well as described other cultural behaviors in order to identify additional impacts of the Mississippian culture. </p><p> I typed the mitochondrial DNA of 21 Late Woodland and 23 Mississippian individuals and placed the results within the context of previous genetic studies of the lower Illinois River valley and other ancient Midwest populations. I determined that there was genetic continuity between the Late Woodland and Mississippian populations, both populations practiced patrilocal postmarital residence patterns, and neither had burial patterns organized by matrilines. The differences in maize consumption as determined by stable isotopic signatures amongst the Late Woodland population were not associated with matrilineal familial diet preference. The population genetic analysis identified genetic connections between Yokem Mounds and contemporaneous populations at Schild Cemetery, Orendorf, and Angel Mounds; but Yokem Mounds was significantly different from the Oneota population at Norris Farms #36. Additionally, <i>Mycobacterium tuberculosis</i> Complex DNA was recovered from eleven individuals from Yokem Mounds and Schild Cemetery. Notably, two of these individuals date to the Middle Woodland period (100 B.C.-A.D. 400), which is the earliest identification of <i>Mycobacterium tuberculosis</i> complex DNA in the lower Illinois River valley. Overall, this research further expands our understanding of Native American prehistory and the demographic changes that occurred prior to European contact.</p>

<p> The primary objective of this dissertation was to reevaluate how physical anthropologists address the issue of oral health and oral health disparities in past populations. By utilizing methodology from dentistry as well as theoretical frameworks from archaeology and public health, we are able to address oral health in a more comprehensive light, allowing for a more interdisciplinary approach to the understanding of oral health in past populations. </p><p> The Erie County Poorhouse, established in Buffalo, New York in response to growing poverty, was located at what is now the University at Buffalo&rsquo;s South Campus. In 2012, skeletal remains were recovered from the associated cemetery (1851-1913). In all, 482 burial locations were identified, with skeletal remains from 376 individuals being recovered for analysis. Archaeological analysis of artifacts and coffin alignment suggest a temporal boundary between an older (earlier) and more recent (later) sections of the cemetery. </p><p> This time period marked a revolution for dental medicine in the United States. Changes in education, innovation, regulation, and public outreach all dramatically increased the accessibility, increased the quality, and decreased the costs of dentistry during the 19th century. Because of this, individuals occupying a lower socioeconomic class could have obtained dental services at higher rates than previous research suggests. This research analyzes dental pathologies, oral health, and oral health disparities within this sample in light of these advances in dentistry. </p><p> Of the 376 individuals available for analysis, 253 had at least one tooth or portion of alveolar bone to be scored for dental pathologies (antemortem loss, carious lesions, abscesses, calculus, periodontal disease) and dental restorations (dentures, fillings, bridges). In general, high frequencies of dental pathologies are present within this sample while only 10 individuals had evidence of dental restorations. Differences in dental pathologies were analyzed using MANOVA/MANCOVA tests as well as Multinomial Logistic Regression between sex (males/females) and sections of the cemetery (earlier/more recent), as well as by age (&lt;15, 15-19, 20-35, 36-50, 50+).</p><p> To better address the concept of oral health, a new index, modified from an oral health index used in clinical dentistry, was utilized&mdash;The Oral Health Archaeological Index&mdash;which generates an &lsquo;oral health score&rsquo; for each individual. The oral health scores generated were compared using ANOVA tests between sex and sections of the cemetery. Results indicate that females had on average higher oral health scores than males (Females= 0.871, Males=0.759). </p><p> To assess the degree of oral health disparities, Lorenz curves and Gini coefficients were calculated using oral health scores and dental restorations. In order to test significance, 50 bootstrapped samples were generated for males, females, and for each section of the cemetery. For each bootstrapped sample, Gini coefficients were calculated. These Gini coefficients were than compared using student&rsquo;s t-test between the sexes and sections of the cemetery. Results suggest that there is greater evidence of oral health disparities among males than females (Female Gini Coefficient=0.0658, Male Gini Coefficient=0.09185). </p><p> This dissertation moved beyond traditional analysis of &lsquo;oral health&rsquo; by utilizing the above Oral Health Archaeological Index, theory, and public health studies to allow for a more robust analysis of oral health in past populations. These methods and theories allow for new interpretations to be made beyond the biological and socioeconomic, focusing on the individual experience and agency of an individual, attempting to ascertain what factors encourage or discourage an individual from seeking out dental treatment.</p>

<p> Investigating intrinsic properties as determinants of bone survival has major implications in forensic anthropology. It is useful in the incomplete recovery of a skeleton to know if certain bones that are missing are those that are expected to be missing. Assuming complete recovery, individual skeletal parts should have different recovery probabilities. This research examines the differential survivorship of human skeletal remains based on intrinsic properties (density, size, and shape) of bone. Fifty skeletons from the William M. Bass Forensic Skeletal Collection at the University of Tennessee-Knoxville were measured to determine bone length (cm) and shape (sphere, disc, rod, or blade) for twenty skeletal elements. Density measures (HUs) of skeletal parts were recorded for 11 skeletons from the Texas State University Donated Skeletal Collection. These intrinsic variables were then compared to recovery frequencies from a forensic sample of Arizona-Sonoran desert border crossers (n=380). This study found a correlation between bone length and frequency (r_S= 0.46) and significant differences in the mean recovery frequencies for shapes (p &lt; 0.05). Though no correlation was found for skeletal part density and frequency (r_S= -0.21), structurally dense midshafts of long bones are recovered with a greater frequency than their corresponding epiphyseal ends (p &lt; 0.001). Furthermore, structurally dense crania have the highest survivorship potential (89%). This study substantiates differences in mean recovery frequencies for skeletal elements according to anatomical location (p &lt; 0.05). Anatomical regions and recovery frequencies were used to produce a simple taphonomic model. Educating law enforcement on the value and appearance of high survivorship bones in the taphonomic model is a recommendation to improve policy and practice.</p><p>

<p> Petra, an ancient city located in southern Jordan, is a UNESCO World Heritage site known for its architecturally grand buildings and tombs carved into sandstone bedrock. The establishment of Petra as the capital of the Nabataean kingdom heralded the beginning of the sedentarization of the rulers of the Nabataean people. Petra rose to prominence between the 2^nd century B.C. and 1^st century A.D. where up to 30,000 Nabataean people may have lived. Despite decades of archaeological excavations at Petra, little is known about how these inhabitants of such a large city could have supported themselves in a semi-arid environment. This study reconstructs the diet of the non-elite Nabataeans from the 1^st century A.D., whose remains were excavated from the Petra North Ridge Tombs. The residents of Petra, like many ancient cities, likely relied on the hinterland for food items and it is expected that the residents supplemented their diet by importing foods to support their large population and to provide variability to the peoples&rsquo; diet. Here, we use a multidisciplinary approach to reconstruct the diet of the non-elite Nabataeans. This approach includes an analysis of carbon and nitrogen stable isotopes of human and faunal remains, combined with paleobotanical, archaeological, zooarchaeological and papyrological data. Stable isotope analysis revealed that the non-elite Nabataeans had relatively homogenous &delta;¹³C and &delta;¹⁵N bone collagen and apatite values which indicates that non-elite Petraeans may have ate a similar diet that relied on water-intensive C₃ plants such as barley and wheat along with meat and secondary products from animals. Evidence of local agriculture production from papyrological, archaeological and paleobotanical sources indicate that C₃ plants were grown and zooarchaeological data indicates that herd animals were brought in &ldquo;on the hoof&rdquo; for consumption. While these data cannot directly identify reliance on imported foods within Petra, the consumption of plant types not suited for Petra&rsquo;s arid environment may suggest they supplemented some locally grown crops with those imported from elsewhere. Finally, through the use of a multidisciplinary approach the data produced allows a more informed interpretation for future isotope studies.</p>

<p> There are long-standing debates regarding the history and identity of Ottoman communities that settled in Southeast Europe during the Ottoman period. As with any political expansion, individuals from Anatolia, the capital region of the empire, were likely to have migrated to newly acquired areas as soldiers, administrators, and political leaders. A mass migration of people is, however, not the only process that may have defined the Ottoman communities in Southeast Europe, as historic documents also record the conversion of Europeans to Islam for a variety of reasons. A consensus on whether migration or conversion practices more significantly impacted the biological makeup of Ottoman Europe has not been reached. </p><p> Thus far, the nature and impact of the Ottoman past in Europe have been predominately studied from the evidence and viewpoint of written history. Anthropological methods and theory have the potential to shed light on the population dynamics of this key period however. This dissertation employed advancements from both archaeology and biological anthropology to conduct a regional bioarchaeological analysis of the European Ottoman period, seeking a better understanding of identity in this historic context. </p><p> Two forms of analyses allowed for in-depth inquiry into biological aspects of identity in Ottoman Europe. First, the assessment of biological affinities from four European Ottoman period groups was done using biological distance analyses of craniometric and cranial non-metric morphological variation. These communities, today located in Hungary, Romania, and Croatia, were compared not only to each other, but also to other European and Anatolian populations. The European and Anatolian comparative populations were represented by four skeletal series from Hungary, Austria, Croatia, and Anatolia. The second method, utilized for one of the Ottoman period populations (from Romania), analyzed strontium isotopes from human and faunal dental enamel. Together, these methods provided a dynamic approach for highlighting markers of biological identity and affinity from human skeletal remains. </p><p> The use of biological distance and strontium isotope analyses highlighted a number of interesting patterns in the European Ottoman communities. The Ottoman populations appear diverse in terms of constituting a mix of peoples from different biological backgrounds. This is evident both within a single Ottoman community, as well as between communities located in different parts of the Ottoman territory. Evidence of this diversity was clear between males and females in different Ottoman period populations. Larger than expected between-sex biological differences within the Ottoman communities suggest distinct population histories for males and females. </p><p> The diversity found within and between the four Ottoman period populations analyzed in this research can be used to better understand different social and political processes influencing the demography of Ottoman Europe. With migration and conversion frequently cited as the two main processes contributing to population change in the region, this analysis allowed for the consideration of how unique trajectories of both impacted different individuals and different groups of people in these societies. The biological data highlighted in this study disagree with many simplistic historical conclusions that cite either migration or conversion as the singular process behind the creation of Ottoman communities and the European Ottoman identity. </p><p> Despite historic evidence that immigration from Anatolia and the conversion of Europeans to Islam impacted the demography of European Ottomans, these communities are at times treated as biologically homogeneous ethnic groups. The Ottoman-established Muslim populations in Southeast Europe are not only treated as a distinct group historically, the division between Muslims or &lsquo;Turks&rsquo; and Europeans has been maintained in some modern communities as well. With Islamic relations in some regions of contemporary Europe continuing to deteriorate, long-held notions that European Muslims are the &lsquo;other&rsquo;, trespassers on Christian lands, are unlikely to be assuaged. The creation of the European Muslim identity descending from the Ottoman period includes a complex history that is still not fully understood. Many modern identities are created from a complex amalgamation of biological and cultural processes, both historical and modern in origin, committing diverse peoples into uniform categories. The bioarchaeology of this dynamic period provided new data on groups of people that influenced both the past and present in Southeast Europe. </p><p>