Ph.D., Faculty of Science, University of the Witwatersrand, 2011 / Work on Sterkfontein cave deposits has generally focussed on clarifying the life histories of interned hominin remains. Less attention has been paid to the depositional context of the fossils and the specific stratigraphic processes involved in the formation of deposits, and their interaction within the cave system. Also lacking is an understanding of the complex processes influencing the distribution and integrity of the faunal and artefact assemblages. This research applied a broad-spectrum multidisciplinary approach to investigate a previously unexamined area of the caves with a particularly rich depositional history. The underground central deposits represent several infills of important fossil and artefact-bearing sediments. These sediments have accumulated into one of the deepest central areas of the Sterkfontein cave system creating a confluence area with a complex formation history. Three excavations (STK-MH1, STK-MH2 and STK-EC1) uncovered seven deposits. These deposits document a depositional history ranging from the earliest introduction of allogenic sediments (STK-MH1 T4), to the commercial exploitation of the caves through mining and tourism (STK-MH1 T1, STK-MH2). The stratigraphic sequence for the underground central deposits exhibits multiple formation processes including deposition (through numerous processes), erosion, collapse, diagenetic modification, deformation and displacement. The detailed stratigraphic history of these deposits was elucidated utilising sedimentological, fabric, stratigraphic, taphonomic and taxonomic analyses. As well as deciphering the complex formation history of this important area, this research attempted to identify the influence of cave sedimentation processes on faunal distribution and assemblage integrity. Faunal assemblages are prone to extensive modification caused by sedimentation and re-sedimentation processes mixing and distributing deposits through the caves. Varying sedimentological properties within fossil-bearing sediment gravity flows can cause the destruction of primary context taphonomic evidence, the concentration of fossils representing multiple stratigraphically distinct facies, and deposit-wide fossil distributions based on element size and shape. In addition to these processes, it was found that different skeletal elements change shape in different ways through breakage, thereby changing the specific mobility of the fossils and their potential distribution through the sediment body. Not identifying or not accounting for these post-depositional processes can lead to non-representative sampling, and to the misinterpretation of taphonomic and taxonomic data.

A dissertation submitted to the Faculty of Science, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science. Johannesburg, 2017 / During the Plio-Pleistocene, the Earth experienced a period of gradual cooling, leading to a decrease in atmospheric temperature and increased seasonality. This resulted in the aridification of large parts of Africa, and this is believed to have encouraged human evolution and innovation. Palaeoenvironmental analyses using sediment deposits as palaeoclimate proxies in the Cradle of Humankind have been used to understand the timing and intensity of this aridification by determining how changes in environmental conditions and seasonal cycles affected the South African landscape. These changes are recorded within the carbon and oxygen isotopic signatures of speleothems, which have precipitated within the Sterkfontein Caves system. The aim of this study is to understand the degree to which modern speleothems represent the modern climate and environment, and thereby deduce the reliability of speleothem deposits in the Sterkfontein Caves system as palaeoclimate proxies. Samples of modern speleothems were collected from different chambers of the Sterkfontein Caves, along with the collection of modern drip water samples bi-weekly over a period of 14 months. Oxygen and carbon stable light isotope analyses of these modern speleothem and drip water samples were used to obtain modern temperature, precipitation and vegetation data. These data were then compared to modern climatic and environmental records for atmospheric temperatures and precipitation from weather stations around the Sterkfontein Caves area. The δ13C trends produced from the modern speleothem samples reflected the current vegetation distribution in terms of C4 and C3 vegetation very well, while the temperatures calculated from the δ18O values of the modern speleothem and drip water samples displayed variations related to kinetic fractionation effects, rendering these data less useful in reflecting the current atmospheric temperatures. The δ18O values of the drip water samples, along with the measured drip rate reflected current precipitation seasonality, taking into account groundwater residence time and recharge rate. The conditions within the cave conducive to formation of the speleothems was well reflected by the pH and electro-conductivity values produced from the drip water samples. These values also provided further insight into the exterior climatic conditions. Overall, the carbon and oxygen stable light isotope data revealed patterns present in the modern speleothem and drip water samples, which could be further related to changes in local climate during the precipitation of these modern speleothems from drip water sources. This, to a certain degree, provides evidence of the reliability of speleothems in the Sterkfontein Caves system as suitable palaeoclimate proxies with regards to vegetation and precipitation interpretations, over a longer term scale and at higher sampling resolution. / MT 2018

The Mpumalanga escarpment hosts a series of stonewalled settlements that occur along a narrow belt between Carolina and Ohrigstad. These sites are unique as they have networks of linking roads, vast areas of terracing as well as large cattle kraals which do not occur in combination or to such an extent anywhere else in southern Africa. Furthermore these settlements occur at an altitude unfavourable for living or agricultural purposes. With the use of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) layers of data relating to the Mpumalanga escarpment and the settlements within the area over the past five hundred years are viewed and compared in order to further understand the placement and structure of these settlements.

Thesis (MA) --Stellenbosch University, 1998. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The rehabilitation of the Matjes River rock shelter on the eastern side of Plettenberg Bay, South Africa, provided an opportunity to obtain new information on the deposits. A metre wide column was excavated through six metres of shell-rich deposits at the junction of two cuttings made in the 1920s and 1950s and known as the "Apex". A small section was cut into the upper layers in the entrance area. A suite of radiocarbon dates shows the deposits to be between 6300 and 10 600 years old with a possible hiatus in deposition between 9000 and 8000 years ago. The hiatus is marked by a disconformity that separates an upper loose shelly deposit from a series of finely bedded loams. The sequence includes artefacts of the Wilton and Albany industries and the transition between these industries is dated to 7400 BP. In the relative frequencies of Donax serra and Pema pema, the shellfish remains show there was a change from a sandy to a rocky shore environment that can be accounted for by the rise of sea level in the Holocene. There is no evidence that shellfish were intensely exploited and farmed down. As observed at Nelson Bay Cave, Choromytilus meridionalis is more common in deposits 9000 years and older. This suggests that the low sea surface temperatures of the Late Pleistocene persisted in the beginning of the Holocene. Information obtained on the deposits is being presented in educational displays for visitors to the site. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die rehabilitasie van die Matjesrivier rotsskuiling, gelee aan die oostelike kant van Plettenbergbaai, Suid-Afrika, het 'n goeie geleentheid verskaf am nuwe informasie te bekom oar die opeenvolging. 'n Meter wye kolom is uitgegrawe deur 6 meter van skulpryke depositos by die kruispunt van die twee uitgrawings wat gedoen is gedurende die 1920s en 1950s en wat bekendstaan as die "Apex". 'n Klein seksie is uitgegrawe in die boonste lae van die ingangsarea. 'n Reeks van radiokoolstofdaterings toon aan dat die afsetting dateer tussen 6300 en 10 600 jaar gelede met 'n moontlike breek in deposisie tussen 9000 en 8000 jaar. Hierdie breek word gemerk deur 'n onreelmatigheid wat die boonste Ios skulp afsettings van 'n reeks leeme skei. Die opeenvolging sluit artefakte van die Wilton en Albany industriee in en die oorgang tussen hiedie industriee is gedateer tot 7400 BP. In die relatiewe frekwensies van D. serra en P. pema toon die skulpvis oorblyfsels aan dat daar 'n oorgang vanaf 'n sanderige tot rotsagtige omgewing plaasgevind het wat deur die styging van die seevlakke in die Holoseen verklaar word. Daar is geen bewyse dat skulpvis intensief geeksplioteer was nie. Soos by Nelsonbaai grot is C. meriidionalis meer algemeen in die depositos wat 9000 j;;:tar en ouer is. Dit suggereer dat die laer see temperature van die Laat Pleistoseen tot aan die begin van die Holoseen geduur het. lnformasie wat deur die uitgrawing bekom is word gebruik vir opvoedkundige uitstallings vir besoekers aan die vindplaas.

Bibliography: pages 177-205. / This thesis presents a reinterpretation of the late-Holocene hunter-gatherer archaeology of the Eland's Bay and Lambert's Bay areas of the western Cape. Marked changes in settlement, and subsistence over the last 4500 years had been previously suggested as having resulted from external factors, such as the environment and contact with incoming pastoralist groups. In contrast, this thesis presents hunter-gatherers as active role players in the transformation of their society and history. This was proposed as a result of an excavation and dating programme, palaeoenvironmental reconstructions with better resolved time sequences, and the use of an interpretative framework that emphasises possible changes in population numbers and in modes of production, as well as the consequences of these processes. Between 3500 and 2000 BP, population densities increased and residence permanence became more sedentary, both of which were easily accommodated by a productive environment. Solutions to social stress, resulting from landscape infilling, were not sought through migration, but through the formalization of ritual gatherings at Steenbokfontein Cave. During these gregarious occasions, proper codes of conducts were reinforced, inter- and intra-group conflict was mediated and peoples' identity with the local landscape was also asserted. Coinciding with the increase in population numbers after 3500 BP, subsistence was reorganized around the intensive collection of highly predictable and productive species, such as shellfish, tortoises and plants. Frequent snaring of small and territorial bovids almost completely replaced the hunting of large mobile game. A system of delayed returns was also central to coastal hunter-gatherer economy between 3000 and 2000 BP, whereby the collection, processing and storage of large quantities of shellfish meat was undertaken. The large-scale effort of this activity is attested by the massive build up of large shell middens termed "megamiddens". It seems likely that hunter- gatherers at this time obtained most of the necessary protein from marine resources. In addition to the pervasive and high levels of social stress, ecological stress became palpable as environmental conditions began to deteriorate after 2400 BP. Ritual intensification no longer provided a solution, and aggregation phases at Steenbokfontein Cave came to an end. Social networks amongst hunter-gatherer groups broke down as a consequence of their fission into smaller social units and withdrawal of some of them to the periphery of the study area. The arrival of stock-owning groups around 2000 BP triggered a series of different responses by hunter-gatherers. These varied from cooperative behaviour, assimilation, avoidance and/or conflict. It is argued that these differences were shaped to a large extent by variable socio- economic configurations amongst pre-contact hunter-gatherer groups. The diet of the newly reconfigured and diverse hunter-gatherer society became overall more mixed after 2000 BP. Shellfish gathering became less important, some hunting of large game was practiced, with most of the diet provided by plant collection, snaring of small antelopes and the capture of tortoises.

Bibliography: pages 107-117. / The following thesis focuses on the relationship between archaeologists, museologists and the broader community, in terms of educational programmes. It consists of a case-study comprising an educational project based on theoretical ideas of People's Archaeology as influenced by theories of Freirean education. The process of the educational project is illustrated through the description of interviews and workshops. The case-study indicates that there is a gap between academic and community percpetions of the role of archaeology and museums. Results from interpretations indicate that much more research emphasising the constitution, situation and perceptions of specific communities, especially those which have previously been marginalised by broader society, is needed in order to improve the educational services which museums and archaeologists offer to the community.

Bibliography: pages 202-225. / This thesis describes the fish remains recovered from a number of sites in three different localities in South Africa; Elands Bay and Langebaan Lagoon on the west coast, and False Bay on the Cape Peninsula. Chapter One is an introductory account of ichthyology, its usefulness in archaeological research and the range of analytical work done in South Africa, whilst Chapter Two is an attempt to show the history and development of the study of fish bones recovered from prehistoric sites in South Africa. Chapter Three gives an account of the southern Oceans, the Benguela Current and fishing habitats. Chapters Four and Five give accounts of the fishing habitats within the Elands Bay area and of the identification and interpretation of fish assemblages excavated at four sites and their implications in relation to habitat and palaeoenvironmental changes at Elands Bay. This information is used first to show that the presence or absence of certain species and the size of those species in the archaeological record can be used as an alternative means to interpret late Pleistocene and Holocene sea level fluctuations and to understand to what extent local fishing habitats have been influenced by those changes. An important observation made was the relative surplus or deficit of vertebrae compared to cranial parts through the sequence. The over-representation or under-representation of fish vertebrae in the fish assemblages points to changes in the procurement strategy employed. The consistency between cranial:vertebral ratios through the site sequences suggests that these patterns are related to both location and processing techniques. Chapter Six reviews the ecology of the Langebaan Lagoon, the identification of fish assemblages from three open midden stations; Stotbergfontein on the shores of the lagoon and Paternoster and Duiker Eiland which are located on the Vredenberg peninsula. Chapter Seven gives a short overview of the modern fishing situation at False Bay and discusses the fish assemblages from Smitswinkelbaai Cave and Rooiels Cave in the False Bay area. Chapter Eight deals with the archaeological evidence for fishing equipment and the depiction of fishing scenes in the rock art of South Africa and addresses the historical evidence for indigenous fishing in the south-western Cape. Chapter Nine gives an overview of the historical fishing at the Cape, the use of outposts near Langebaan Lagoon and Muizenberg in False Bay by the Dutch to supply the Cape settlement with provisions. In Chapter Ten the relevant evidence from each of the chapters is summarised and the conclusions for the three areas are presented.

A dissertation submitted to the School of Geography, Archaeology and Environmental Studies, Faculty of Science, University of the Witwatersrand, In fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Science. Johannesburg 2015 / What happens when a rural community expresses the need for a heritage centre? Located in the former Transkei homeland of the apartheid era, now in the Eastern Cape Province, Matatiele is one of many disadvantaged, though culturally rich, communities in South Africa. The region has received insufficient attention to its heritage concerns and has been neglected by government and by academics for decades. Motivated by the Mehloding Community Trust, a project run by the Matatiele community, this research addresses the local community’s perception of heritage. This includes, amongst other things, their views on heritage management strategies and in particular the significance of rock art. One hundred and forty individuals from fifteen selected villages were interviewed to ascertain their interest in a heritage centre by way of representing and managing their own heritage. This research, therefore, addresses the nature of community involvement in heritage management and archaeology in the south-eastern part South Africa.

KwaGandaganda is an Early Iron Age (EIA) site in the .Mngeni valley (KwaZulu-Nata~ South Africa). Three cultural phases, Msuluzi, Ndondondwane and Ntshekane, dating between AD 620- AD 1030 were identified. The objective was to establish the extent of animal exploitation during the EIA in KwaZulu-Natal by means of faunal analysis, using internationally accepted methods. The collection included 41 006 fragments of which 22.9% were identifiable. A large number of species (68) were identified, including Rattus rattus. The collection yielded the largest quantity of ivory chips ever found on an EIA site in southern Africa, as well as an extensive variety of pathological specimens, mostly from Bos taurus. Several possible divining bones were present in the sample. Herd management, hunting strategies, gathering activities, fishing and trading of animal goods during the EIA were discussed, while the consequences of the unique excavation methods (i.e. the use of bulldozers) were also commented upon. / Anthropology and Archaeology / M.A. (Anthropology)

Text in English with abstracts in English, Afrikaans and isiXhosa / This thesis describes the development of a methodology to find inter tidal shipwrecks. The discussion revolves around finding a particular shipwreck – that of the Dutch slaver Meermin. The story of the revolt on the Meermin helps to focus the search and development of the methodology to find inter tidal shipwrecks as the Meermin was wrecked in this zone. The thesis contextualises the search and the story by discussing not only maritime archaeology in South Africa, but also looking at slave ship archaeology and the history of slavery at the Cape. One of the key techniques for finding shipwrecks is the use of magnetometers. The discussion defines the types of magnetometers available to archaeologists and how magnetometry was applied during the search for the Meermin. This inevitably includes an examination of the shipwrecks wrecked in the area of the Meermin episode as well as the way this region has changed over time. The results of the magnetometer searches (which included airborne, handheld and marine magnetometers) are discussed as well as the ground truthing of the results. The latter involved excavation and the development of excavation strategies, and excavation results are scrutinized. In the final analysis the search for the Meermin is further contextualised by considering the various impacts the project has had in other spheres. / Hierdie tesis beskryf die ontwikkeling van ‘n metodologie waarmee skeepswrakke in die inter-gety sone opgespoor kan word. Die Hollandse slaweskip, Meermin, is die fokus van die diskussie. Die storie van die slawe opstand op die Meermin help om die ontwikkeling en soektog na skeepswrakke in die inter-gety sone te verskerp, aangesien dit in hierdie sone was waarin die Meermin gestrand het. Die soektog en storie van die Meermin word gekontekstualiseer deur die bespreking van die ontwikkeling van maritieme argeologie in Suid Afrika, die argeologie van slawe skepe en ‘n kort geskiedenis van slawerny aan die Kaap. Magnetometers is een van die belangrikste tegnieke gebruik vir die opspoor van skeepswrakke. Die tipes magnetometers wat deur argeoloë gebruik word, word gedefinieër asook hoe magnetometers gedurende die soektog na die Meermin gebruik is. Daar word ook gekyk na die ander skepe wat in die area van die Meermin gestrand het en die veranderinge wat deur die jare in die streek plaasgevind het. Die resultate van die magnetometer soektogte (insluitend vliegtuig, draagbare en mariene magnetometers) word bespreek so wel as die opgrawings van die resultate. Hierdie opgrawings het noodwendig gelei tot die ontwikkeling van opgrawings tegnieke. Die resultate van die opgrawings word bespreek. Die finale analise kontekstualiseer die soektog na die Meermin met ‘n bepeinsing van die menige impakte wat die projek gehad het. / Le thisisi icacisa ngenkqubela kulwazi-nkqubo lokufumana iinqanawa ezaphuka phakathi kokuzala nokurhoxa kolwandle. Ingxoxo zimalunga nokufunyanwa kwenqanawa ethile eyaphukayo – kanye leyo yayithutha amakhoboka amaHolani i-Meermin. Ibali lovukelo kwi-Meermin liyasinceda siqwalasele uphando nenkqubela kulwazi-nkqubo lokufumana iinqanawa ezaphuka phakathi kokuzala nokurhoxa kolwandle njengoko i-Meermin yaqhekeka kanye kulo mmandla. Ithisisi le isicacisela kanye ngophando nembali ngokuxoxa hayi ngobunzululwazi ngezakudala emanzini eMzantsi Afrika nje kuphela, koko iphinde ijonge ngobunzululwazi ngezakudala kwinqanawa yokuthutha amakhoboka nembali yobukhoboka eKapa. Obunye bobuqili obuphambili ekufumaneni iinqanawa eziqhekekileyo kukusetyenziswa kwezixhobo zokulinganisa iintshukumo. Ingxoxo ibalula iindidi zezixhobo zokulinganisa iintshukumo ezisetyenziswa ziinzululwazi ngezakudala nendlela ekwasetyenziswa ngayo ukulinganiswa kwentshukumo ngethuba kuphandwa i-Meermin. Ngokuqhelekileyo oku kuquka ukucutyungulwa kweenqanawa ezaqhekekayo ziqhekeka kummandla wesehlo esisodwa se-Meermin kunye nendlela le ngingqi eguquke ngayo emveni koko. Iziphumo zophando ngezixhobo zokulinganisa iintshukumo (ziquka ezo zasesibhakabhakeni, ezibanjwa ngesandla nezasemanzini) ziyaxoxwa kunye neziphumo zenyani yenene. Le yokugqibela iquka ukwembiwa nenkqubela kwindlela zokomba, iziphumo zokomba nazo ziqwalaselwe. Kuye kwaphinda kwacaciswa kwintlahlela yokugqibela kuphando lwe-Meermin kuqwalaselwa iimpembelelo ezithile umsebenzi othe wangquzulena nazo nakwezinye iindawo. / Anthropology and Archaeology / M.A. (Archaeology)