Giant cane [Arundinaria gigantea (Walter) Muhl.] is a native bamboo species that was once widely distributed within bottomland forests and as extensive monotypic stands (canebrakes) along waterways of the southeastern United States. Land conversion to agriculture greatly decreased the distribution of canebrakes. Limited to less than two percent of its historic range, canebrakes are now considered an endangered ecosystem. A 0.24 hectare low maintenance experimental nursery of giant cane was established at Southern Illinois University to examine the effect of planting stock type, soil amendments, and four collection sources on cane survival and growth (number of culms, height and diameter of the tallest culm, spread between furthest two culms) after two growing seasons. All treatments, plus interactions of source by soil, and source by stock, were significantly affected by survival. Collection source significantly affected all growth measurements. Stock type affected the number of culms, height, and spread. Soil amendments did not significantly influence any growth measurement but affected soil chemical properties. The interactions between source and stock affected the number of culms, height, and spread. The interaction between stock and soil significantly affected spread, but no other interactions significantly affected any growth measurements. Of all treatment combinations, the Cypress Creek West source, when grown in containers, tended to have the greatest survival and overall growth after two years, regardless of soil amendments. This study highlights factors that are important in establishing a giant cane restoration nursery. This nursery will also generate growing stock for future canebrake restoration and rehabilitation projects.

The effectiveness of giant cane [Arundinaria gigantea(Walt.) Muhl.] as riparian buffer vegetation has been demonstrated through research and has gained interest from state and federal agencies to support restoration efforts. Unfortunately, little is known about the physical and chemical properties of the soils below canebrakes and how soil characteristics influence aboveground and belowground biomass production. To determine what physical attributes of the plant influence its success as riparian buffer vegetation and also to determine the interactions with underlying soils, fourteen canebrakes were sampled throughout Southern Illinois. Objective one was to develop an allometric equation to quantify belowground biomass based on aboveground parameters of canebrakes. Previous research found that successful propagation was dependent on rhizome length, the number of internodes and the number of rhizome buds present, but no data exists regarding the yield of rhizomes for a given area. By harvesting all aboveground biomass (culms and leaves) and belowground biomass (roots and rhizomes) to a depth of 25 cm from a 1-m2 plot at each site, morphometric characteristics were quantified and biomass allocation throughout the plant was determined. A significant linear relationship between total aboveground biomass (live and dead) and belowground biomass in giant cane was evident (R=0.865, p<0.001). Although this is a strong relationship, it may be impractical for a manager to harvest, process, and weigh all of the aboveground biomass to speculate the biomass below ground. Therefore, metrics were explored for predicting the length of rhizome, number of rhizome internodes and number of rhizome buds an area will yield using multiple regression and models were developed that estimate these parameters. Using the equation that predicts the number of rhizome buds for a given area, the yield of propagules can then be estimated. Although this equation does not account for all variation of belowground characteristics, it will provide a general guideline for land managers restoring giant cane. The second objective was to estimate biomass allocation of giant cane roots/rhizomes beneath canebrakes by depth (i.e., at 25-cm increments to a depth of 150 cm). Results showed that 67% of giant cane's belowground biomass was within the top 25 cm of the soil profile and accounted for 65% of all belowground biomass encountered at that depth. Giant cane rhizomes were documented to a depth of 51-75 cm deep while cane roots existed in the deepest cores at a depth of 126-150 cm with an average density of 0.08 kg m-3. Giant cane belowground biomass declined with increasing depth, but was still the dominant species at 26-50 cm, comprising 61% of all biomass encountered at that depth. These results support the utility of giant cane as an effective riparian buffer species by increasing the soil porosity and promoting infiltration while contributing a significant source of carbon to the soil profile. Chemical and physical soil properties were measured to determine if they related to canebrake characteristics. Significant correlations were found between various soil properties and canebrake characteristics, implying there is an interaction between giant cane and the underlying soil. Results from this research will improve our understanding of the dynamics of giant cane and supplement existing information to help guide restoration efforts.

Giant cane (Arundinaria gigantea) is a native bamboo that forms large monodominant stands called canebrakes in bottomlands in the southeastern US. Canebrakes are valuable habitat for wildlife and function as riparian buffers to protect soils and water quality. Currently, only 2% of canebrake ecosystems remain. Thus there is interest in establishing new canebrakes as well as maintaining and expanding existing canebrakes. For field restoration, using cane rhizomes to produce transplants is possible but it is unknown when propagules should be collected and grown. For rehabilitation of existing canebrakes, preliminary studies suggest that fertilization and disturbance such as fire can be beneficial but additional broader-ranging studies are warranted. This research reports on three giant cane studies involving producing transplants from rhizomes and involving managing existing canebrakes with disturbance in southern Illinois. The main objectives of study 1 were to ascertain a) if collection season influences the proportion of rhizome propagules that grow at least one culm (culm production success) and the resultant culm growth when transplanted in a greenhouse b) if specific rhizome characteristics influence an individual rhizome’s ability to produce a culm c) if aboveground biomass could be a predictor of the amount of belowground propagules and d) if aboveground biomass, total rhizome length, number of rhizome nodes, or number of rhizome buds could be a predictor of how many culms could be produced when transplanting. Monthly, for a year, sample plots were randomly selected in the SIUC giant cane nursery. In sample plots aboveground culm measurements were collected included live culm density (#/0.25m2), dead culm density (#/0.25m2), height of the tallest culm (cm), diameter of the tallest culm (mm), and total aboveground biomass (g). Each month rhizomes were dug from the sample plots, measured (length (cm), diameter (mm), # nodes, and # live buds), and transplanted into pots and placed in the greenhouse for approximately 94 days. At that time, measurements were taken of the number of live and dead culms produced per pot and the height of the tallest culm (cm). Results indicate that rhizomes collected and transplanted in the greenhouse during winter and spring months (December-May), had significantly greater culm production success and produced significantly taller culms. Also, rhizomes intermediate in length (18-30 cm) that contained 5 to 12 nodes and 4 to 9 live buds tended to have higher than average culm production. Finally, a positive correlation existed between the amount of aboveground biomass and the number of rhizome nodes, the number of live rhizome buds, and the length of rhizomes found in sample plots. Aboveground biomass can predict the amount of belowground rhizome propagules that can be used for canebrake restoration. Study 2 is a two year continuation of work initiated in 2011 and reported on by Margaret Anderson in 2014 on the effects of fire, fertilization, and fire and fertilization combined on the growth and expansion (culm density, height and diameter) of canebrakes within the Cache River Watershed in southern Illinois. Results showed considerable year to year variability among treatments within the canebrake for some growth parameters. However, three years after disturbance, all treatments tended to have similar culm density and growth values and canebrake expansion occurred for all treatments into exterior plots. Fire alone was similar to controls in growth parameters and did not produce any long-term negative effects. Thus, fire can be used as an effective tool to reduce competition from other species, allowing managed canebrakes to persist longer than those that remain undisturbed. Fertilization used alone and in combination with fire, produced slight growth and density increases, but added costs may not warrant its use in canebrake management. Study 3 compared fire and mowing disturbances on the growth and expansion of remnant canebrakes located in southern Illinois. Eleven replications in remnant canebrakes were established throughout the Cache River watershed. Each replication contained a fire only treatment, a mowing only treatment, and a control. Measurements were taken in the dormant season early in 2012 prior to a single mowing and a single fire in March, and after each growing season thru 2014. Measurements including live and dead culm density (#m2), culm height (cm), and culm diameter (0.01 mm), were taken within subplots in the canebrake interior and exterior. Results from this study showed that mowing can be used as an effective alternative to fire for the management of remnant canebrakes through reductions in competition. Neither fire nor mowing produced negative effects of growth within the measured canebrakes or in adjacent areas. Like the previous study, all treatments including the control experienced an outward expansion of cane culms throughout the course of the study. This study shows that both fire and mowing can be used as effective tools to reduce competition within canebrakes to aid in their continued vigor.

The research in this thesis concentrates on investigation of the ecology of Arundinaria species for restoration purposes. Arundinaria species are key components in the canebrake ecosystem that was once prominent in the southeastern United States. Arundinaria still occurs as an understory component of bottomland hardwood forests, but with intense agricultural development and urbanization over the past 200 years, canebrakes are now a critically endangered ecosystem with greater than 98% loss. Specifically the thesis addresses the establishment of Arundinaria with other plant species and site preparation techniques. This study indicated that A. gigantea planted into plots dominated by non-native plants benefited significantly more from site preparation (soil tillage, herbicide application) than cane planted into native-species-dominated assemblages. The last portion of the research examined effects of inundation on A. gigantea and A. tecta. Arundinaria tecta appeared to be more flood tolerant than A. gigantea, reflecting habitats in which these species are known to occur.

Arundinaria gigantea (Walt.) Muhl. (giant cane) is a native North American bamboo. The mass assemblages of giant cane stems (culms) can form monotypic stands called "canebrakes" with historic distribution encompassing floodplains of the southeastern United States. Canebrake ecosystems have served as an important habitat for a variety of mammalian, avian, and reptilian species due in part by the protective nature the dense culms provide. Also, giant cane also can serve as an effective riparian zone buffer for the protection of water quality. Land conversion and altered disturbance regimes have reduced cane to 2% of historical accounts. Consistently, there is great interest in restoring canebrake ecosystems. However, canebrake restoration efforts face difficulties such as infrequent seeding and low viability, limited availability of seedlings or rhizome planting stock, and inefficient establishment and management techniques. To address these problems, two studies were designed to further develop giant cane propagation thereby aiding management efforts intended in restoring canebrake ecosystems. Study 1 (greenhouse) objective was to compare the survivability and growth responses of bare rhizomes and rhizomes with attached and trimmed culms with different planting orientation. Study design was a randomized complete block with approximately 20 rhizomes of each propagule type (bare rhizomes, rhizomes with culms trimmed to 3cm and rhizomes with culms trimmed to 20cm) planted in two orientations (buried flat or angled and partially exposed) in each of 4 benches (N=239). Propagule type and planting orientation were determined randomly. After six months, propagule survival was 86% and was independent of orientation (chi square 1df = 1.56, p=0.212) and propagule type (chi square 2df =3.88, p=3.88). There was an interaction between planting orientation and propagule type for the number of new rhizomes and culms, above ground biomass, but not for newly formed rhizome diameter or cumulative culm and rhizome length. Rhizome propagules with attached trimmed culms produced, on average, one more rhizome and were 71 cm longer than newly formed rhizomes from the bare rhizome propagules. Planting orientation had no effect on any measured character of long culmed propagules, burying the short-culmed or bare rhizomes tended to reduce growth responses. However, among exposed propagules, growth responses tended to be similar. Study 2 (field-scale) objective was to determine if genotype (3 collection sources) and collection season/ planting season (C/P) (fall/fall, fall/spring, spring/spring) affect survival and growth of giant cane. Study design was a randomized complete block design with between 12 and 20 bare rhizomes per each of 3 collection sources (subplots) planted in each of 3 rows (collection season/ planting season main plots) blocked 6 times across 2 sites (N=2086). Location of collection sources within subplots and C/P within plots were randomly chosen. Rhizomes were planted in rows using a tree planter. Mean survival of cane plants after one growing season was similar at each site with a mean of 11.1%. Survival was dependent on collection source and C/P seasons. Survival ranged from a high of 38.3% for the spring/spring planted Upper Cache River source to 0.4% for two of the other 9 treatment combinations. Collecting and planting rhizomes in the spring for two of the three collection sources produced the highest percent survival compared to stock collected in the fall then planted or stored until spring. These results suggest the importance of collection source, collection season, planting season, propagule morphology and orientation on the survival and new growth of giant cane in southern Illinois.

AN ABSTRACT OF THE THESIS OF MARGARET MARZIYE ANDERSON, for the Masters of Science degree in Forestry, presented on September 12th, at Southern Illinois University Carbondale. FIRE AND FERTILIZATION EFFECTS ON THE GROWTH AND EXPANSION OF EXISTING NATIVE CANEBRAKES [ARUNDINARIA GIGANTEA (WALT) MUHL] IN SOUTHERN ILLINOIS MAJOR PROFESSOR: Dr. Jon Schoonover Giant cane [Arundinaria gigantea (Walt) Muhl.], a native bamboo, is an integral component of bottomland forests in the southeastern United States. Cane occurs as monodominant stands, also known as canebrakes, which historically covered vast areas of land. As a result of land conversion, overgrazing and altered fire regimes, an alarming 98% reduction of canebrakes has occurred. Due to the ecological significance of giant cane as wildlife habitat, a riparian buffer, its role in soil stabilization and potential as woody biomass, restoration interest has increased. Research with planted cane indicated fertilization and burning had interacting effects on cane growth, however in remnant natural stands, the influence of burning and fertilization on canebrake growth and spread is unknown. This study examined the survival and growth response of cane to burning and fertilization in remnant stands to provide guidance for rehabilitation, restoration and management. Four treatment plots were replicated eight times across seven sites in canebrakes growing in riparian zones adjacent to agricultural fields in the Cache River Watershed, Illinois. The four treatments were randomized factorial design of: 1) burning, 2) fertilization, 3) burning/fertilization, or 4) control. Within treatment plots, two interior and three exterior 1-m² subplots were randomly established to measure culm density (stems/ha), height (cm), diameter (mm), and spread (increase in live culm density by the outward movement from interior subplots into exterior subplots) prior to treatment and after one and two growing seasons. Fertilized and fertilized/burned plots were treated in summers of 2011 and 2012 with a half corn rate of nitrogen (56 kg ha-1), phosphorus (22 kg ha-1), and potassium (37 kg ha-1). Prescribed burning took place in March 2012. Data were analyzed using a three way analysis of variance (fire, fertilization and subplot) (α = 0.05). At year 0 (2011), culm density, height and diameter were not significantly different among treatments. By year 2, live culm density in interior plots slightly increased, however density in exterior plots tended to more than double, indicating canebrake expansion over time. Fertilization tended to increase height and had little effect on cane diameter. Research suggests that cane typically increases in both height and diameter simultaneously, suggesting that fertilization only partially provides the resources needed to stimulate growth. Further analysis on fertilization application rates and timing may be necessary to ascertain the efficiency of its role in culm growth and development. Giant cane responded to prescribed burning through a decrease in height and culm diameter. However, fire increased culm density through stimulation of the growth of new culms. In addition, though fire consumed a portion of existing culms, the canebrake emerged vigorously, demonstrating prescribed fire's utility as a tool for land managers to reduce competition and increase canebrake health and expansion.

<p>Since wetlands provide many important ecosystem services, there is much interest in protecting existing wetlands and restoring degraded wetlands. Yet, degraded wetlands and restoration sites are often vulnerable to plant invasions that can hinder restoration success. Invasive plants typically reduce biodiversity and alter important ecosystem functions and services. This dissertation examines the ecological impact and management of invasive plant species during wetland restoration with a focus on three important drivers of plant community change in wetland ecosystems: disturbance, plant strategies, and environmental filters.</p><p>The investigations included in this research were conducted in a tropical dry wetland (Palo Verde Marsh, Palo Verde National Park, Costa Rica) and a temperate piedmont riparian forest (Sandy Creek, Duke Forest Stream and Wetland Assessment and Management Park, Durham, North Carolina). In these experiments, the primary species of interest are <italic>Typha domingensis</italic> Pers. (cattail; Typhaceae), <italic>Ligustrum sinense</italic> Lour. (Chinese privet; Oleaceae), <italic>Arundinaria gigantea</italic> (Walter) Muhl. (giant cane; Poaceae), and <italic>Microstegium vimineum</italic> (Trin.) A. Camus (Japanese stiltgrass; Poaceae).</p><p>The expansion of <italic>Typha</italic> into wetlands historically not dominated by cattail typically occurs in response to natural and anthropogenic perturbations. Management approaches that reduce <italic>Typha</italic> dominance, increase diversity, and restore or maintain wetland ecosystem services are of interest worldwide. The objective of the first phase of the research was to investigate a unique <italic>Typha</italic> removal method that is used in one of the most dynamic and ecologically important wetlands in Central America (Palo Verde Marsh, Palo Verde National Park, Costa Rica; a Ramsar Wetland of International Importance). Palo Verde Marsh is a tropical dry wetland with distinct and extreme wet and dry seasons; it is flooded during the wet season and has no standing water for much of the dry season. Palo Verde Marsh has historically provided important habitat for very large populations of migratory birds. However, a cattail (<italic>T. domingensis</italic>) expansion in the 1980s greatly altered the plant community and reduced avian habitat. Since then, <italic>Typha</italic> has been managed using fangueo (a Spanish word, pronounced as "fahn-gay-yo" in English). During fangueo, <italic>Typha</italic> is crushed and locally removed by a tractor with metal paddle wheels. I applied a <italic>Typha</italic> removal treatment at three levels (control, fangueo, and fangueo with fencing to exclude cattle grazing) at Palo Verde Marsh. Fangueo was applied at the beginning of the dry season resulting in a large reduction in <italic>Typha</italic> dominance (decreased aboveground biomass, ramet density, ramet height), an increase in open areas with no vegetation, and a 98 and 5-fold increase in avian density and richness, respectively. Importantly, fangueo had no apparent long-term impact on any of the soil properties measured (including bulk density). Interestingly, low soil and foliar N:P values indicate that Palo Verde Marsh and other wetlands in the region may be nitrogen limited. The fangueo process is an effective method for restricting <italic>Typha</italic> expansion and increasing plant and avian diversity. I present a model that illustrates the impact of <italic>Typha</italic> management and seasonal flooding on the plant and avian community. The technique might be adopted or modified for the restoration and management of <italic>Typha</italic> and other invasive emergent plants in other wetlands.</p><p>The second objective of this research was to better quantify the impact of the distinct and extreme anaerobic/aerobic annual cycle on the plant community in Palo Verde Marsh. Since the impact of seasonal flooding on the plant community in seasonal wetlands is often most evident after disturbance, I created gaps in the wetland vegetation via the mechanical removal of emergent vegetation and then measured plant community change using surveys of the wet and dry season standing vegetation, the seed bank, and <italic>in situ</italic> seedling recruitment. As expected, seasonal flooding acted as an environmental filter and resulted in distinct dry and wet season assemblages. The dominant plant life forms present after vegetation removal differed between seasons with emergents dominating during the dry season and floating-rooted, free-floating, and submerged species more dominant during the wet season. I identified common species that are characteristic of both seasonal assemblages and used indicator species analyses to identify species that are only likely to be found during the wet season. I also characterized the seed bank at this site; like most seasonal wetlands, plant species' resilience in this wetland were dependent upon a large and diverse seed bank which allowed many species to revegetate after disturbance and the extreme wet/dry conditions which acted like environmental filters.</p><p>In addition to the experiments conducted in Palo Verde Marsh, this dissertation also presents the results from an experiment in a temperate riparian restoration site in the North Carolina Piedmont (Sandy Creek, Duke Forest Stream and Wetland Assessment and Management Park, Durham, NC). Since riparian restoration efforts in the southeastern U.S. are often hindered by invasive non-native plants, there is much interest in approaches that can be used to reduce the impact of invasive non-native plant populations at the local level (e.g., a restoration site). In addition to the impact of non-native species-specific removal efforts, there is also much interest in the identification and assessment of native competitive-dominant plant species that can be used during riparian restoration to support important ecosystem functions and reduce non-native invasibility. <italic>Ligustrum sinense</italic> (Chinese privet) is a very common invasive non-native shrub in the region. <italic>Arundinaria gigantea</italic> (giant cane) is a native bamboo species that used to be very abundant in riparian and wetland ecosystems in the region. The objectives of this phase of the research were to: (1) measure the plant community response to removal of mature <italic>L. sinense</italic> individuals; and (2) quantify planted <italic>A. gigantea</italic> clonal expansion in the presence of other plants, particularly common non-native invasive species. Due to its potential for rapid growth and expansion, it was hypothesized that <italic>A. gigantea</italic> would be able to compete with common non-native species and reduce non-native invasibility. In a three-year split-plot experimental design, I applied a Privet-Presence treatment at two levels (Privet Present, Privet Removed) and a Cane-Planting treatment also at two levels (Cane, No Cane). The privet removal treatment resulted in 100% mortality of mature privet individuals. After privet removal, <italic>L. sinense</italic> seedlings recruited into these plots but growth has been very slow and these <italic>L. sinense</italic> individuals are not yet dominant. The privet canopy allows minimal understory plant recruitment and growth and privet removal resulted in an increase in species richness and diversity in the first year. However, in these Privet-Removed plots, a non-native invasive annual grass (<italic>Microstegium vimineum</italic>) invaded, became the most dominant species, and reduced species richness and diversity. In Privet-Removed plots, <italic>A. gigantea</italic> clonal expansion (i.e., ramet density, genet area, ramet diameter, and ramet height) was small in the first year but increased in the second and third years. Importantly, in Privet-Removed plots where <italic>A. gigantea</italic> was planted, <italic>M. vimineum</italic> cover was lower and species richness and diversity were greater; planting <italic>A. gigantea</italic> appears to have facilitated the establishment of other species and, in the process, increased diversity.</p><p>Our results emphasize several general conclusions that are applicable to other restoration efforts in other ecosystems with other plant species. First, during ecological restoration, invasive non-native plant removal alone will typically not restore native plant communities. Non-native invasive plant populations are typically very resilient to removal. Hence, long-term reductions in non-native invasibility will often require additional management efforts. For example, in the tropics my research showed the effectiveness of Fangueo for reducing <italic>Typha</italic> monocultures and increasing native plant and bird diversity. Another approach for improving ecosystems functions and reducing non-native invasibility after invasive plant removal is to carefully select and plant native species with competitive-dominant traits that will be able to compete with invading non-native species and resist invasion. Although this seemingly simple approach is often used by restoration practitioners, the results are rarely monitored and surprisingly few studies are designed to explicitly identify and investigate the performance of these important native competitive-dominant species.</p> / Dissertation