The reefs off Broward County, Florida, are non-accreting, lie near the northernmost limits of tropical coral reefs, and are now being affected by human influences including physical damage and pollution. Port Everglades may be a source of many anthropogenic contaminants, discharging freshwater, sediments, hydrocarbons, pesticides, heavy metals, and nutrients in a plume that sweeps over the coastal reef. These reefs should be considered fragile, and therefore warrant careful investigation, monitoring and management. This study surveyed the reef community immediately to the north and south of the Port Everglades inlet to determine if the inlet effluent plume produces a water quality gradient and associated biological gradient. Species composition and percent cover of corals, sponges and macroalgae were surveyed adjacent to the inlet using quadrat sampling, point-plotless and line-intercept transects. In addition, water quality parameters were measured from samples taken from the inlet plume including nitrites and nitrates, Total Kjeldahl nitrogen (TKJN), chlorophyll and specific conductivity, in order to delineate the plume and compare with benthic coverage. Live scleractinian coral cover was less than five percent at most sites and appeared to follow substrate variability rather than influence by water quality, and showed no significant correlation with distance from the inlet. However, coral mortality appeared to increase near the inlet, though not significantly. Fleshy macroalgae also showed notable increases at sites nearest the inlet, though no significant linear trend could be shown. Sponges showed no significant change in abundance with proximity to the inlet; however, sponge morphology appears variable in the nearshore environment, and measuring the size and shape of sponges rather than point-plotless estimates may give a more accurate picture of sponge cover. Chlorophyll levels over the reef were positively correlated with levels of nitrites and nitrates coming from the inlet, and coral cover was negatively correlated with chlorophyll concentrations, indicating an indirect correlation between coral cover and nitrites and nitrates. Coral cover was also negatively correlated with phosphorus at sites south of the inlet, and positively correlated with specific conductivity at all sites. Though macroalgae cover was not significantly correlated with any factor, fleshy macroalgae height was positively linked with levels of TKJN, but negatively linked with levels of phosphorus coming from the inlet. Sponge abundance was negatively correlated with nitrites and nitrates, and TKJN, and positively correlated with conductivity at sites south of the inlet. Of the transect methods used, point-plotless transects were fastest and most convenient. However, corals are sparse in the nearshore environment and the distance between each coral colony can increase the likelihood that point-plotless transects will miss coral colonies along a transect line. Sparse benthic cover also produced results with high variation using the quadrat analysis. Line-intercept transects record all cover of a benthic group being assessed along a transect, and thus seem more appropriate in an area of highly variable substrate and resulting biotic cover. This study concluded that Port Everglades affects the health and composition of the adjacent reef. Some biological categories appear to reflect water quality, though further assessment on a larger portion of the reef is recommended.

The transition to a new energy infrastructure is a reality that the world cannot continue to postpone. The limited nonrenewable energy resource should begin immediately to be invested in the development of a new energy infrastructure, based on renewable energy. However, because there is such a wide range of energy sources and technological options, the problem becomes choosing and finding energy technologies that are cost effective, energy efficient, environmentally acceptable and socially benign. Due to the interrelated nature of renewable resources, and the international scope of present day environmental problems, the energy infrastructure problem requires a global and comprehensive approach in the search for solutions. Particularly significant is the increasingly important role of the oceans and the coastal zone as a source of food, energy and raw materials. It is within this context that the problem of solar electric systems integration with Florida's power generation system is considered. The thesis focuses on the impacts of the environmental, energy and economic crises of the 1970's on the U.S. Electric Industry that led to the increasing use of, and research in, renewable energy technologies for electric power production. The case of Florida is significant due to the over dependence of the Florida electric utilities on oil and the availability of an abundant and varied renewable energy resource base within the state's jurisdictional limits and in the surrounding ocean waters. The thesis examines the economic, technical, environmental and institutional aspects of systems integration in Florida. Conclusions are based on the results of a survey which reflects the opinions of the Florida Electric Industry, State government agencies and research centers regarding the potential of the solar electric technologies in Florida. The survey results indicate that photovoltaic and Biomass technologies are perceived as the most promising solar electric options for Florida at this time. The need for a comprehensive resource and technology assessment at a systems level is clearly established. Interconnection issues are identified (storage, siting, transmission to shore, materials requirements, area requirements and systems integration). The problem of limited jurisdiction of the state of Florida over offshore energy development is identified in the legal and regulatory framework for power plant siting in Florida. The possibilities of a solar-hydrogen economy are examined. The thesis proposes a comprehensive and multidisciplinary approach (Coastal Zone Energy Management (CZEM) to the problem of integrating solar electric systems with Florida's power generation system. This approach is based on the conservation ethic and the application of a multidimensional analysis methodology (a multidimensional theory of value) that comprehensively integrates existing analytical methods; namely, benefit-cost analysis, environmental impact analysis, economic-environmental models, technology assessment and energy analysis.

The diet and feeding habits of the southern stingray, Dasyatis americana, were investigated through aerial surveys, land-based observations, and quantitative analysis of stomach contents. The field research was conducted in the Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park, central Bahamas. Systematic aerial surveys and the land-based observations were made to determine population density and feeding periodicity in terms of time or tidal phase. In August, 1989, systematic surveys were flown over two cays in the Park; a 12 km2 area around Waderick Wells Cay and a 21km2 area around Shroud Cay. Both survey areas were flown three times over different times of the day. Over the large area covered by the aerial surveys the population varied over time of day. A significantly higher density occurred in the morning for both grids and was lowest in the afternoon for both grids suggesting that the stingrays prefer to feed early in the day in the summer. The peak density was 2.07 stingrays per km2 for the Waderick Wells survey area and 1.87 per km2 for the Shroud survey area. A total of 117 hours of land-based observations were made over 4 months; with 28 to 31 hours of observations in April and May 1990 and January and July, 1991. The land-based observations indicated that the stingrays were actively feeding throughout the day, but showed some increase in feeding activity during the high tidal phase. The habitat utilization was recorded during the land-based observations and showed that the stingrays spent most of their time feeding in the soft sediment habitats, thus taking advantage of the soft sediment algal turf and sandy shoal habitats that dominate the shallow marine environments within the Park. Eighteen stingrays were collected in January, 1991 for stomach content analysis. Decapod crustaceans were the most important prey category, but the large number of prey types found in all of the stomachs indicates that the southern stingray is a generalist feeder. There were no empty stomachs and 77% of the stomachs had more than 20 prey items. Stomach fullness measures did not indicate any feeding periodicity. The southern stingray is a generalist feeder taking advantage of a broad range of prey types and opportunistic in its feeding habits, showing no strong feeding periodicity.

Bacterial growth rates and bacterivore grazing rates were compared to concentrations of dissolved polysaccharide and monosaccharide over diel periods in subtropical marine coastal waters by incubating large volumes of natural water in situ. Growth and grazing rates were detennined by the dilution method with 4 hour incubations. Carbohydrates were measured with the 3-Methyl-2-benzothiazolinone hydrozone hydrochloride hydrate (MBTH) colorimetric assay. Diel studies were conducted in April, August, and September 1997. Bacterial growth rates and bacterivore grazing rates as well as dissolved polysaccharide and monosaccharide concentrations varied significantly over the diel period of each study. There was inverse variation between bacterial growth rates and monosaccharide concentrations in two of the three studies, when daily average monosaccharide concentrations were 80 μgC/l or less. In the third study, monosaccharide concentrations were higher and the inverse relation with bacterial growth rates was less apparent. The diel pattern of bacterivore grazing rates followed that of bacterial growth rates in each study and were significantly correlated in two of three studies. Daily average bacterial growth rates were never significantly different than daily average bacterivore grazing rates. Bacterivore grazing rates were never directly related to dissolved carbohydrates, but were negatively correlated with total dissolved carbohydrates and monosaccharides in one study.

Loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta) deposit eggs on 1250 km of Florida beaches in underground egg chambers. Florida beaches host more than 20,000 loggerhead sea turtles per year, which comprise 90% of the total nesting population of the United States. Coastal erosion has caused depletion of much of the suitable nesting habitat. Beaches in Florida also support various developments, homes, recreational activities, and serves other environmental networks. This erosion can be attributed to coastal development, global warming and the rise in sea level. Due to economic, recreational, safety, and environmental conservation reasons one mechanism, beach preservation has become necessary. Beach renourishment, adding sand to the beach via dredging,accoplishes this. The source of sand, the time of renourishment, and the biological, chemical and geological parameters of the sand must all be considered to minimize ecological disturbances. The impact of three beach renourishment projects were examined that occurred in Broward County, John U. Lloyd State Park (1989), Hollywood Beach (1990), and Hillsboro Beach (1998). Nesting success, incubation time, and hatching success were analyzed via one-way ANOVA and slope tests. Nest depth and emergence success were analyzed when the data were available. Pre-nourishment data were used to analyze the nesting conditions prior to erosion. The post-nourishment data were compared to test the impacts of renourishment on nesting and hatching parameters. On all three beaches, the highest nesting success was found before the renourishment. The success dropped the year of the renourishment. The number of adult female emergences did increase the year follwing the renourishment, due to the increased beach width. Incubation times are decreased during the year following the renourishment. However, this data as well as the nest depth data on all three beaches strongly related to the weather data. The hatching success data could not be conclusively linked with the renourishment. The Hillsboro Beach project only indicated a decrease in the hatching success the year after the renourishment. The emergence success was slightly lower the year following renourishment, however not significantly so. While beach renourishment did affect some aspects loggerhead sea turtles' nesting parameters, the effects were minimal and did not appear to be long term. In most cases, the data had returned to pre-nourishment levels within three years after the renourishment. As renourishment has become beneficial in order to restore nesting habitat, it is important to study ways to protect the sand that is placed on the beaches. According to the three projects in Broward County, Florida, beach renourishment does appear to be a viable solution for the erosion problem. Since this is only a short term solution to a reoccuring problem, designing a complete beach maintainence plan could ensure the continuation of the beaches.

During the period January to December 2004, monthly water and sand samples were collected from the mangrove salt marsh and intertidal beach, respectively, of John U. Lloyd State Park. This study is the first to report on spatial and temporal distributions of heterotrophic diatoms in a subtropical region. A total of six non-pigmented (colorless, lacking photosynthetic pigments), heterotrophic diatom morphotypes were isolated from the mangrove and beach sample sites. Colorless diatoms were numerically significant in mangrove neuston during the fall and winter months. Cell counts peaked to 174 × 103 cells l-1 in December. Heterotrophic diatoms were most prevalent from mangrove plankton in October when they averaged 55.5 × 103 cells l-1. At the beach sample sites, non-pigmented diatom numbers were highest in upper and lower intertidal sand in April, with 71.1 and 94.9 cells g-1, respectively. Valve morphology is described in detail for the six diatom morphotypes isolated from the mangrove sites (I, II, V and VI) and beach sites (III and IV). Growth responses to changes in salinity and irradiance were examined in the laboratory for the six types of coastal diatoms. Most morphotypes were euryhaline, tolerating salinities between 10 and 50 ‰. Maximum growth responses were achieved between 20 and 40 ‰. Growth responses were not significantly different for heterotrophic diatoms during light and dark treatments. Additional experiments were conducted to investigate growth of morphotype VI in axenic and monoxenic cultures and to look for clues as to why some strains were observed to burrow in agar plates. The presence of bacteria did not significantly affect the growth response for morphotype VI. Morphotype VI did not form visible burrow in axenic or polyxenic cultures (and in other experiments, only burrowed at 7.5 gl-1 agar concentrations). The ability of diatoms to burrow into different phycocolloid bases at different concentrations was tested. The data suggests that heterotrophic diatoms digest complex carbohydrates as a nutrient source allowing them to out-compete bacteria (since few bacteria are capable of digesting phycocolloids). If true, heterotrophic diatoms may be capable of digesting recalcitrant particulate carbon in situ. This is particularly true of the two marine morphotypes (III and IV) that were observed to develop numerous burrows and were the only morphotypes capable of burrowing through non-nutrient agar at twice the standard concentration (30 g agar l-1).

Gastroenteritis, upper respiratory complaints and dermatological infections can all result from swimming in sewage polluted waters. Current United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) guidelines require that recreational beaches are routinely tested for the presence of sewage contamination. Fecal indicator bacteria, such as Escherichia coli, fecal coliforms, and enterococci, are all intestinal microflora of warm-blooded animals and are the indicators of choice. It is assumed that high concentrations of these organisms in water imply fecal contamination and hence warn of health risk to swimmers. Although local Health Departments routinely assess the quality of beach water, they do not test the sand. 1bis is surprising since most beachgoers spend more time in contact with sand than water. The present study was part of a two-year project funded by the EPA designed to assess the microbiological quality of beach sand and its possible health risks. Over a ten-month sampling period, water, wet sand, and dry sand samples were collected and the levels of enterococci and fecal coliforms were compared at two South Florida beaches. Levels of fecal indicators were consistently higher in the dry sand relative to the wet sand and were lowest in water. An attempt to source track these indicators using the Biolog identification system suggested that bacteria in sand were from multiple sources. There was, however, some evidence to suggest that gull droppings and land runoff were major inputs to the beach. Surprisingly, offshore sewage outfalls were not found to be a major source in this study. Microspatial sampling of beach sand showed patchy distribution of enterococci. Gull droppings, which provided dense localizations of bacteria, and the subsequent translocation of enterococci through the activity of beachgoers probably accounted for most of the heterogeneity in the dry sand. Enterococci in the wet sand were more evenly distributed presumably due to the normalizing effect of wave action The swash zone, close to the area where water managers collect samples for analysis, had much higher counts of enterococci than 10m offshore. This was due to wave action washing enterococci from the sand into the water column. Research by colleagues showed that enterococci displayed enhanced survival and growth in the sand and suggested that they should be referred to as 'environmental' enterococci. The delineation between environmental and pathogenic bacteria in the sand was investigated in this study using a molecular approach. Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) was shown to be able to detect pathogenic Salmonella in beach sand. However, no clear relationship was apparent between the presence of pathogens on the beach and the numbers of indicator bacteria enumerated by traditional methods. Moreover, results from a health survey conducted at the study beaches showed no obvious health risks associated with exposure to beach sand. It is likely that sand fecal indicator bacteria are predominately 'environmental' and that when these bacteria are washed into the swash zone, they could lead to unwarranted beach closures. It is recommended that water managers should consider sampling beyond the current testing depth of 3 ft (1 m) to avoid the detection of enterococci from the sand.

The frequency, magnitude and persistence of cyanobacteria bloom events are increasing worldwide and can be attributed to many factors associated with urban, industrial and agricultural expansion (Pittman and Pittman 2005; Ahern et al. 2006b). In Florida, filamentous cyanobacteria of the genus Lyngbya was first observed in the early 1990s, first documented on the southernmost extent of Broward County reefs in 2002, and have since progressed northward into West Palm Beach County (Paul et al. 2005; Tichenor 2005). Previously, cyanobacteria would appear during the summer months, however they began surviving through the winter in 2003. The two main species of Lyngbya affecting Broward County have been identified through morphological and molecular methods as Lyngbya confervoides and Lyngbya polychroa, neither of which have been established as toxic (Paul et al. 2005). The purpose of this study is to describe the patterns of Lyngbya spp. presence along the southeast coast of Florida from the period of May 2004 to September 2005. Digital photographs are used to analyze the Lyngbya bloom and describe the geographical variability of Lyngbya spp. presence along a north-south and east-west gradient. Preferential relationships between Lyngbya spp. and affected reef organisms are investigated and correlations based on physical parameters of the study site are examined. Lyngbya presence is dominant in the south corridor, middle and inner reef tracts, and the crest zone of the sites evaluated in this study. Further investigation is needed to compare possible nutrient sources on the reefs to determine if a connection exists between nutrient loads and blooms. Attachment correlations exist between Lyngbya and the algae substratum as well as Lyngbya and soft corals. Lyngbya prefer to attach to live reef and do not prefer to settle on bare substrate. Areas with high live reef cover were conducive to Lyngbya settlement and proliferation. Lyngbya color variations exist within the bloom. Patterns of color dominance along the ecological gradients of the study sites exist and may provide insight into the length of blooms as well as the stage of the bloom at a given time. The overgrowth and proliferation of cyanobacteria along the coast of Broward County should raise cause for concern because of the negative effects the blooms cause to soft coral assemblages. Lyngbya is capable of nitrogen fixation which gives it a competitive edge for survival. The secondary metabolites produced by the cyanobacteria make it unpalatable to most herbivores so it can continue to grow unchecked in a reef system unless other factors play a role. The presence and persistence of Lyngbya may continue to worsen with time if the full nature of the blooms is not understood.

Meta-analyses of published cetacean life history data and original modeling efforts have been conducted to determine which vital rates are most important in determining the growth and sustainability of both odontocete and mysticete populations. In particular, the role of anthropogenic sound in the ocean was examined in relation to cetacean population trends, with specific implications for life functions, vital rates, and population sustainability. Elasticity and sensitivity analyses of Leslie matrices suggested that most cetacean populations appear to be most sensitive to changes in the adult female survival rate, and least sensitive to calf survival. A secondary factor to which whale populations are sensitive is a change in juvenile survival or growth. With the exception of the North Atlantic right whale (Eubalaena glacialis), most cetaceans are not sensitive to changes in fecundity at any age stage. Of particular concern for depleted cetacean species, adult females may be sensitive to changes in foraging success which limit their ability to acquire sufficient body fat to reproduce and raise calves successfully. These results are similar to those for other species with similar life histories, such as terrestrial vertebrates and non-mammalian marine predators. The resulting model outputs have direct implications for the management of marine mammals, particularly in regions where acoustic disturbances are likely in the future or are currently prevalent. Additionally, information gained from these modeling exercises may aid in the transition of the Population Consequences of Acoustic Disturbances (PCAD) model from qualitative to quantitative, as well as provide useful values for the parameterization of population viability analyses (PVAs) in cetacean management. The implications of these model findings to cetacean conservation are many, and include: 1) Increases in anthropogenic noise in the marine environment which have the capacity to limit adult female survival should be avoided at all costs, 2) Due to the inexact nature of cetacean population modeling, changes in vital rates may induce undetectable or unpredictable changes in population growth rate, so use of the precautionary principle is strongly advised in management decisions, 3) There are likely thresholds within which population vital rates can change without a resulting change in the growth rate, but these are not indicated by traditional sensitivity and elasticity analyses. Future studies are needed focusing on the likely intricate relationships between anthropogenic ocean noise and both adult female and juvenile cetacean survival. Additionally, improvements in cetacean modeling resulting in more precise and robust population and vital rate estimates would prove invaluable to the conservation of these species.

The amphinomid polychaete, Hermodice carunculata, was found on a variety of natural and artificial substrates off Fort Lauderdale, Florida. In Acropora cervicornis assemblages worms were observed in mean densities of 0.07-0. 13 ind m-2 and consumed 2-3% of available A. cervicornis tissue inside transect areas during surveys (~6-month periods). In nonacroporid areas, worms fed opportunistically on a variety of prey such as the zoanthid, Palythoa caribaeorum, the hydrocoral, Millepora alcicornis, the octocorals, Briareum asbestinum and Iciligorgia schrammi, and the sponge, Holopsamma helwigi. Previous research claims that H. carunculata has a clearly defined diurnal feeding cycle. In this study, worms were observed grazing on A. cervicornis during the day and at night from 2200 h to 2400 h. It is possible that factors such as wave action, water depth, prey abundance and predator densities influence the feeding patterns of H. carunculata in the near-shore habitats studied. Laboratory trials were conducted in order to compare feeding preference, feeding rates, and behavior of H. carunculata to field observations. Worms consumed 3-14 branch tips of A. cervicornis weekly relative to body size; a strong correlation was found between worm weight and scar size (r = 0.76, pA. cervicornis populations Caribbean-wide. Laboratory feeding preferences of worms removed from non-acroporid areas ranked as follows: Palythoa spp.> Eunicea calyculata> A. cervicornis. In the field, H. carunculata apparently fed on the most abundant available prey species.