Hippocampus has an extended developmental trajectory, with refinements occurring in the trisynaptic circuit until adolescence. While structural change should suggest a protracted course in behavior, some studies find evidence of precocious hippocampal development in the first postnatal year and continuity in memory processes beyond. However, a number of memory functions, including binding and relational inference, can be cortically supported. Evidence from the animal literature suggests that tasks often associated with hippocampus (visual paired comparison, binding of a visuomotor response) can be mediated by structures external to hippocampus. Thus, a complete examination of memory development will have to rule out cortex as a source of early memory competency. We propose that early memory must show properties associated with full function of the trisynaptic circuit to reflect "adult-like" memory function, mainly (1) rapid encoding of contextual details of overlapping patterns, and (2) retention of these details over sleep-dependent delays. A wealth of evidence suggests that these functions are not apparent until 18-24 months, with behavioral discontinuities reflecting shifts in the neural structures subserving memory beginning approximately at this point in development. We discuss the implications of these observations for theories of memory and for identifying and measuring memory function in populations with typical and atypical hippocampal function. (C) 2015 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.

L'objectif général de cette thèse est d'explorer comment les enfantes perçoivent des traits de surface du langage à différents niveaux. Plus spécifiquement, on a examiné dans une population typique et atypique 1) la perception des traits acoustiques de bas-niveau et sa relation avec le développement du vocabulaire, et 2) la sensibilité à la fréquence des mots pour générer la représentation linguistique abstraite des catégories lexicales et de leur ordre relatif. Selon les modèles de bootstrapping, il est possible d'extraire des informations structurelles et abstraites de la langue à partir de traits acoustiques disponibles dans l'input et corrélés avec la structure linguistique sous-jacente (p. ex. grammaire et syntaxe). Pour examiner le lien entre la perception de bas niveau, les traits de surfaces et les connaissances grammaticales plus abstraites, cette thèse s'articule en deux parties principales. Dans la première partie, deux études longitudinales sont présentées. Chaque enfant était testé sur son seuil de discrimination auditive (avec un paradigme de traitement rapide) et sur une tâche de reconnaissance visuelle pour contrôler les compétences cognitives. Le seuil acoustique était évalué en utilisant des sons non-linguistiques (tons) dans un groupe d'enfants et linguistiques (syllabes) dans un autre groupe d'enfants à 9 mois pour déterminer si l'impact du traitement auditif est spécifique au langage. Enfin, le niveau de vocabulaire a été mesuré à 12, 14, 18 et 24 mois et un test cognitif (Mullen Scale) a été réalisé entre 18 et 20 mois comme supplémentaire contrôle cognitif. Les résultats montrent que les capacités mesurées sont prédictives du développement du vocabulaire chez les enfantes typiques. De plus, les enfants atypiques ont montré des capacités de traitement moins efficaces dans les modalités visuelle et acoustique. Dans la deuxième partie, le rôle de la fréquence des mots dans l'amorçage des catégories lexicales des mots de fonction et de contenu et leur ordre relatif est explorée. Les deux catégories lexicales sont différentes dans leur fonction linguistique, leurs caractéristiques phonologiques et leur fréquence dans la parole. Ainsi, leur catégorisation basée sur la fréquence pourrait constituer un mécanisme initial robuste pour acquérir les constructions de base de la langue. Comme les mots de fonction constituent une classe fermée, alors que les mots de contenu constituent de classes ouvertes, nous avons examiné si les nourrissons français âgés de 8 mois étaient sensibles à la fréquence des mots pour catégoriser les mots de fonction et pour les traiter comme des éléments non-remplaçables dans des classes fermées, et les mots de contenu comme des éléments librement remplaçables dans des classes ouvertes. Les cinq expériences de grammaire artificielle menées ont confirmé cette hypothèse. De plus, les nourrissons associent l'ordre relatif de ces catégories avec l'ordre des mots de base de leur langue maternelle, le français. Les participants atypiques ont montré des capacités de discrimination, de codage et de mémoire inférieures à leurs pairs typiques. En conclusion, ce travail a permis une meilleure compréhension des capacités de perception contribuant au développement du langage. De plus, cette thèse a identifié de potentiels marqueurs comportementaux pouvant servir à l'identification précoce des apprenants atypiques. / The purpose of this work is to explore how infants perceive surface features of language at different levels of processing. Specifically, in both typical and atypical populations, we examined 1) the processing of low-level auditory cues and its relationship with later language outcomes and 2) the sensitivity to word frequency to create abstract linguistic representations of lexical categories and their relative word order. Accordingly to bootstrapping models learners are able to extract abstract, structural and hence directly unobservable properties of the target language from perceptually available surface cues in the input that correlate with the underlying structure. Indeed, infants are sensitive to certain acoustic and phonological properties of the speech input, which in turn correlate with specific grammatical/syntactic structures. In order to map the link between the perception of these low-level, surface cues and more abstract grammatical knowledge, this work is organized in two main parts. In the first part, two longitudinal studies are reported. Each infant received an auditory discrimination threshold task (using the rapid auditory processing paradigm) followed by a habituation/visual novelty detection task used as a control for general cognitive skills. The auditory discrimination threshold was evaluated using non-linguistic (tones) sounds in one cohort of infants and linguistic sounds (syllables) in another cohort of infants at 9 months in order to investigate the language-specificity of the process within the auditory modality. Subsequently, infants' vocabulary was assessed at 12-14-18 and 24 months and a cognitive test (Mullen scale) was performed at 18-20 months as another control measure for early processing competence. Results show that early processing abilities are predictive of later vocabulary size in typical infants. Importantly, atypical participants exhibited slower and less efficient processing abilities in both visual and acoustic modality. In the second part, the role of word frequency in bootstrapping the basic lexical categories of function and content words and their relative order is explored. The two lexical categories differ in their linguistic functions, phonological makeup and frequency of occurrence. Thus, their frequency-based discrimination could constitute a powerful initial mechanism for infants to acquire the basic building blocks of language. As functors constitute closed classes, while content words come in open classes, we examined whether 8 month-old French monolinguals relied on word frequency to categorize and track functors as non-replaceable items in a closed class, and content words as freely replaceable items in open classes. In five artificial grammar-learning experiments we have found that infants treat frequent words as belonging to closed classes, and infrequent words as belonging to open classes and they map the relative order of these categories onto the basic word order of their native language, French, a functor-initial language. Importantly, atypical participants showed lower ability of discrimination, encoding and memory when compared to typically developing peers. Overall this work contributes to a better understanding of the perceptual abilities that directly contribute to language development. Moreover, it proposes possible behavioural markers that can be potentially useful in the early identification of atypical learners.

L'obiettivo del presente lavoro è quello di esaminare criticamente le prospettive teoriche più note sul problema delle relazioni tra sviluppo concettuale del bambino ed acquisizione della prima lingua. Per quanto il lavoro si concentri in particolare sullo sviluppo della componente lessicale, ovvero sul legame tra concetti e apprendimento delle parole con cui gli stessi vengono codificati, verranno necessariamente trattati anche alcuni aspetti relativi alla competenza morfologica e sintattica. Dopo aver presentato sinteticamente le principali teorie proposte nell'ambito della linguistica acquisizionale e della psicologia dello sviluppo, procederemo ad una problematizzazione e discussione dei punti critici delle stesse alla luce dei risultati ottenuti in sede sperimentale negli ultimi anni. Partendo dalla consapevolezza che nell'ambito della linguistica, forse ancor più che in altre discipline, il contrasto tra impostazioni teoriche diverse si traduce spesso in discrepanze significative nell'interpretazione degli stessi dati empirici, abbiamo cercato di dare lo stesso spazio ai vari orientamenti teorici. L'obiettivo di questa tesi, infatti, non è quello di dare giudizi di merito sulla validità di una teoria in quanto tale rispetto ad un'altra, quanto di discutere in modo trasversale i nodi più problematici delle varie teorie e le implicazioni delle stesse. Questo intento è particolarmente evidente nelle conclusioni della tesi, strutturate intorno ad una serie di domande di ricerca. / This work provides a critical overview of the major theoretical perspectives on the relationships between conceptual development and first language acquisition. While our focus is on lexical development (ie. on the relation between learning a word and acquiring the relevant concept), we will also touch on some aspects which pertains more specifically to morphological and syntactical development. After briefly introducing the major theories developed in the field of first language acquisition and developmental psychology, we will discuss them in the light of experimental data collected in recent years. As the same empirical findings tend to be interpreted in completely different ways, in our work we tried to give voice to authors supporting different views. Our goal is not to assess the merits of these theores as such, but to take this comparison as an opportunity to discuss the implications and issues thereof. This will be particularly clear in the Conclusions of our work, which are structured as a series of research questions.