M.Com. (Business Management) / The purpose of applicability of private sector, situation in South this study is to determine value-for-money-auditing in with specific reference to Africa. The methodology which has been followed, consists of a literature study of the theories and concepts of value-for-money-auditing as well as an empirical study to determine the perceptions of South African management with regard to value-for-money-auditing. The following substantial findings are identified as a result of the empirical study: Firstly, that South African management is well aware of the possibilities of value-for-money-auditing. A lack of knowledge is not the reason why this kind of audit is not performed in the private sector. Secondly, management does regard value-for-money audits as feasible, but they have neither the time nor the manpower to invest in a value-for-money-audit. Thirdly, this study has shown that the external auditor also does not have the mar:power· or the knowledge at his disposal to perform an effective value-for-money-audit. The independence of the external auditor is of no importance in management's decision on the most suitable per son to perform a value-for-money-audit. The limited application of value-for-money-auditing in the private sector may be attributed to the following: • Inadequate guidelines, exposure drafts and statements with regard to value-for-money-auditing • The inability of the external auditor to perform a value-for-money-audit as a result of the nature of his training; • The perception of private sector management that the external auditor is not the most suitable person to perform a value-for-money-audit. This presents a challenge to the external audit profession to alleviate the above-mentioned shortcomings through further research and studies to enhance value-for-money-auditing in the private sector.

Die oogmerk van hierdie studie is om die waarde van 'n klein maatskappy-oudit te bepaal en om daarvolgens 'n geskikte hervormingstrategie vir sodanige audits te bepaal. 'n Literatuurstudie is uitgevoer met betrekking tot die ontwikkeling en aard van klein maatskappy-oudits, die toepaslikheid van Suid-Afrikaanse ouditstandaarde op klein maatskappy-oudits en die verwagtings van die gebruikers van 'n klein maatskappy se finansiele state. Die voormelde aspekte is daarna empiries getoets ten einde 'n algemeen aanvaarde hervormingstrategie vir klein maatskappy-oudits te formuleer. Uit die literatuurstudie is verskeie kenmerke van 'n klein maatskappy ge"identifiseer. Daarvolgens is argumente aangevoer wat die waarde van 'n klein maatskappy-oudit bevraagteken, soos dat belanghebbendes nie die geouditeerde finansiele state vir besluitnemingsdoeleindes aanwend nie, en dat die tradisionele behoefte aan ouditering nie by klein maatskappye bestaan nie, omdat die aandeelhouers en bestuur (direkteure) gewoonlik dieselfde persona is. Die empiriese navorsing onder die vernaamste gebruikers van klein maatskappye se finansiele state, naamlik sodanige maatskappye se aandeelhouers en/of direkteure, die Suid-Afrikaanse lnkomstediens, bankinstellings en praktiserende ouditeure, het aan die lig gebring dat daar nie eenstemmigheid ocr 'n objektiewe definisie van 'n klein maatskappy bestaan nie. Die oorheersende kenmerk van 'n klein maatskappy is dat die eienaarskap van so 'n maatskappy in die bestuur (direkteure) gesetel is. As 'n algemene norm kan 'n maatskappy egter as klein geklassifiseer word indien dit nie twee van die volgende maatstawwe oorskry nie: Omset R12 miljoen; totale bates R6 miljoen; vyftig werknemers. Die empiriese ondersoek het verder getoon dat die primere gebruikers van klein maatskappye se finansiele state 'n positiewe houding oor so 'n maatskappy-oudit huldig en dat geouditeerde finansiele state van klein maatskappye wei gebruik word tydens bedrywighede en/of vir besluitnemingsdoeleindes en dat Suid-Afrikaanse ouditstandaarde redelik gepas is in 'n klein maatskappy-ouditomgewing. Die huidige openbaarmaking- en dokumentasievereistes van toepassing op aile maatskappye, word egter as te omvangryk beskou. Die slotsom van die studie is dat 'n klein maatskappy-oudit wei 'n bestaansreg geniet omdat dit waarde toevoeg. Gevolglik behoort die konvensionele statutere audit behou te word; die algemeen aanvaarde rekeningkundige-vereistes behoort egter vir klein maatskappye afgeskaal word. / The purpose of this study was to determine the value of a small company audit and then to establish a suitable reform strategy for such audits. A literature study was performed of the development and nature of small company audits, the applicability of South African auditing standards to small company audits and the expectations of the users of the financial statements of a small company. These aspects were then empirically tested to formulate a generally accepted reform strategy for small company audits. The literature study distinguished various characteristics of a small company. Arguments were raised which questioned the value of small company audits, for instance that the interested parties did not use the audited financial statements for decision-making and that the traditional need of auditing does not exist with small companies as the shareholders and management (directors) usually are the same people. The empirical research among the main users of the financial statements of small companies, namely its shareholders and/or directors, the South African Revenue Services, financial institutions and practising auditors revealed that there is no acceptable objective definition of a small company. The dominant characteristic of a small company is that the ownership of such a company vests in management. A company can, as a general norm, be classified as small if it does not exceed two of the following three measures: Turnover R12 million; total assets R6 million; fifty employees. The empirical investigation also showed that the primary users of the financial statements of small companies have a positive attitude towards a small company audit, that the audited financial statements of small companies are used in the performance of their activities and/or decision-making and that South African auditing standards are reasonably applicable to a small company audit environment. The current disclosure and documentation requirements applicable to all companies are, however, regarded as too comprehensive. This study led to the conclusion that a small company audit is justified because it adds value. The conventional statutory audit should therefore be retained but the generally accepted accounting requirements should be scaled down for small companies. / Auditing / D. Compt. (Toegepaste Rekenmeesterskap)

Die oogmerk van hierdie studie is om die waarde van 'n klein maatskappy-oudit te bepaal en om daarvolgens 'n geskikte hervormingstrategie vir sodanige audits te bepaal. 'n Literatuurstudie is uitgevoer met betrekking tot die ontwikkeling en aard van klein maatskappy-oudits, die toepaslikheid van Suid-Afrikaanse ouditstandaarde op klein maatskappy-oudits en die verwagtings van die gebruikers van 'n klein maatskappy se finansiele state. Die voormelde aspekte is daarna empiries getoets ten einde 'n algemeen aanvaarde hervormingstrategie vir klein maatskappy-oudits te formuleer. Uit die literatuurstudie is verskeie kenmerke van 'n klein maatskappy ge"identifiseer. Daarvolgens is argumente aangevoer wat die waarde van 'n klein maatskappy-oudit bevraagteken, soos dat belanghebbendes nie die geouditeerde finansiele state vir besluitnemingsdoeleindes aanwend nie, en dat die tradisionele behoefte aan ouditering nie by klein maatskappye bestaan nie, omdat die aandeelhouers en bestuur (direkteure) gewoonlik dieselfde persona is. Die empiriese navorsing onder die vernaamste gebruikers van klein maatskappye se finansiele state, naamlik sodanige maatskappye se aandeelhouers en/of direkteure, die Suid-Afrikaanse lnkomstediens, bankinstellings en praktiserende ouditeure, het aan die lig gebring dat daar nie eenstemmigheid ocr 'n objektiewe definisie van 'n klein maatskappy bestaan nie. Die oorheersende kenmerk van 'n klein maatskappy is dat die eienaarskap van so 'n maatskappy in die bestuur (direkteure) gesetel is. As 'n algemene norm kan 'n maatskappy egter as klein geklassifiseer word indien dit nie twee van die volgende maatstawwe oorskry nie: Omset R12 miljoen; totale bates R6 miljoen; vyftig werknemers. Die empiriese ondersoek het verder getoon dat die primere gebruikers van klein maatskappye se finansiele state 'n positiewe houding oor so 'n maatskappy-oudit huldig en dat geouditeerde finansiele state van klein maatskappye wei gebruik word tydens bedrywighede en/of vir besluitnemingsdoeleindes en dat Suid-Afrikaanse ouditstandaarde redelik gepas is in 'n klein maatskappy-ouditomgewing. Die huidige openbaarmaking- en dokumentasievereistes van toepassing op aile maatskappye, word egter as te omvangryk beskou. Die slotsom van die studie is dat 'n klein maatskappy-oudit wei 'n bestaansreg geniet omdat dit waarde toevoeg. Gevolglik behoort die konvensionele statutere audit behou te word; die algemeen aanvaarde rekeningkundige-vereistes behoort egter vir klein maatskappye afgeskaal word. / The purpose of this study was to determine the value of a small company audit and then to establish a suitable reform strategy for such audits. A literature study was performed of the development and nature of small company audits, the applicability of South African auditing standards to small company audits and the expectations of the users of the financial statements of a small company. These aspects were then empirically tested to formulate a generally accepted reform strategy for small company audits. The literature study distinguished various characteristics of a small company. Arguments were raised which questioned the value of small company audits, for instance that the interested parties did not use the audited financial statements for decision-making and that the traditional need of auditing does not exist with small companies as the shareholders and management (directors) usually are the same people. The empirical research among the main users of the financial statements of small companies, namely its shareholders and/or directors, the South African Revenue Services, financial institutions and practising auditors revealed that there is no acceptable objective definition of a small company. The dominant characteristic of a small company is that the ownership of such a company vests in management. A company can, as a general norm, be classified as small if it does not exceed two of the following three measures: Turnover R12 million; total assets R6 million; fifty employees. The empirical investigation also showed that the primary users of the financial statements of small companies have a positive attitude towards a small company audit, that the audited financial statements of small companies are used in the performance of their activities and/or decision-making and that South African auditing standards are reasonably applicable to a small company audit environment. The current disclosure and documentation requirements applicable to all companies are, however, regarded as too comprehensive. This study led to the conclusion that a small company audit is justified because it adds value. The conventional statutory audit should therefore be retained but the generally accepted accounting requirements should be scaled down for small companies. / Auditing / D. Compt. (Toegepaste Rekenmeesterskap)

A research report submitted In partial fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Master of Commerce in Accounting, School of Accountancy University of Witwatersrand, 2018 / This paper explores the change in auditors and whether it enhances auditor independence and credibility of financial statements. In recent years due to financial crises and accounting scandals, the rotation of a company’s auditors, after long standing relationships, have come into the limelight. The independence of auditors has come into question and the credibility of financial statements. Interviews were conducted to gain an understanding of how an audit client, referred to in this report as the Company, changed its auditors. The interviews gained an understanding of how the Company: • Made the decision to change and appoint new auditors • Determined whether this change enhanced independence and • Created processes in order to manage the changeover. The Company carrying out the change was analysed in order to understand the processes which were put in place to manage the change. Understanding the criteria and skills required from the new auditor was also investigated. The study finds that the process of appointing and transitioning to new auditors is a comprehensive and rigorous task. This process requires proper and careful planning, risk identification and process and project management. Throughout the process, the Company met with business its operations and provided feedback to members of the boards to ensure gaps were filled and targets and milestones were met. The onboarding of the new auditors required engagement with both the auditors and different functions and businesses of the Company. The success of this project required intense planning and incredible momentum, which the study shows, over the period of time in which the change took place. It required integration with all businesses of the Company and the group finance function. / PH2020

Text in Afrikaans / Professionele etiek word nie altyd in ag geneem met besigheidsbesluite nie. Die vordering van kredietversekeringspremies is waarskynlik 'n voorbeeld daarvan. Die uitneem van kredietversekering is dikwels 'n voorwaarde vir die verlening van krediet deur sommige meubelhandelaars. Geweldige finansiele voordele wat voortspruit uit kredietversekeringskemas lei tot uitbuiting van die publiek deur sekere meubelhandelaars. Die verskillende kredietversekeringskemas wat in die meubelhandel toegepas word, voldoen nie aan die vereistes van die Woekerwet, 1968, en die Versekeringswet, 1943, nie. Hierdie oortredings het dikwels 'n wesenlike uitwerking op die geopenbaarde finansiele inligting van verskeie meubelhandelaars. Dit is die ouditeur se verantwoordelikheid om die statutere vereistes met die vordering van kredietversekeringspremies in ag te neem, aangesien dit 'n onwettige optrede, asook 'n onreelmatigheid kragtens algemeen aanvaarde ouditstandaarde is. Die ouditeur behoort toepaslik verslag te doen oor gevolglike wanvoorstellings van die finansiele inligting van die betrokke meubelhandelaars. Hierdie verantwoordelikheid word egter nie deur alle ouditeure nagekom nie. / The taking out of credit insurance is often a condition for the granting of credit by certain furniture traders. Enormous financial gains arising from credit insurance schemes result in exploitation of the public by certain furniture traders. Various credit insurance schemes in the furniture trade contravene the Usury Act, 1968, and the Insurance Act, 1943. These contraventions often materially affect financial information disclosed by certain furniture traders. It is the auditor's responsibility to consider the statutory requirements for the collection of credit insurance premiums, as this is an illegal act and an irregularity in terms of general accepted auditing standards. The auditor's duty is to appropriately report on resulting misrepresentations of financial information of such furniture traders. Some auditors however, do not comply with this responsibility. / Auditing / M. Compt. (Auditing)

Part A of this dissertation, represents the literature review and project outline for this study, and includes the definition of the research problem, aims, objectives and the proposed methodology. The literature review considers the emergence of environmental accounting and reporting in the context of the escalating environmental crisis. It reviews the role of accounting prior to the development of the concept of sustainable development, and subsequently focuses specifically on the rise to prominence of environmental reporting and accounting thereafter. It reviews major academic works in this field as well as major international guidelines, standards, protocols and charters on environmental reporting. In addition, the study also reviews the limitations and problems associated with traditional and environmental accounting, and environmental reporting. It proposes a framework that considers the forces influencing environmental reporting, and briefly examines the previous evidence of the contrasting attitudes and perceptions of both preparers and users of such environmental reports. Arising out of this literature review, a study was developed that would measure and compare the expectations of three key stakeholder groups with regard to environmental accounting and reporting, namely: • The companies responsible for preparation • Environmental professionals, who assist in the preparation of these reports or attest as to their validity, and • Environmental activists, pressure groups and non-governmental organisations (NGOs) that rely on such reporting to assess the impact of a company's activities. The study would look at the perceived importance of environmental reports, the areas that are reported on, and the levels of disclosure. It would then contrast the expectations of the above three groups and compare these to the minimum reporting levels required by the only officially endorsed international reporting guideline in South Africa, the Global Reporting Initiative (GRI). The second part of this dissertation (Part B), is presented in the form of a research paper, and is presented in the specific format required by the academic journal Corporate Social Responsibility and Environmental Management, a Wiley InterScience publication, to which it will be submitted for publication, (after final editing to reduce its overall length). This second part includes a brief review of key literature, the aims, objectives and hypothesis of the study. It then details the methodology and the findings, which are discussed in depth. These findings include significant differences that were found between the expectations of the three groups, and differences between these expectations and the reporting specifications of the GRI. The environmental activists and pressure groups were found to expect greater levels of disclosure than professional environmental consultants, who in turn expected higher levels of disclosure than companies and their representatives. There were also significant differences between the responses of the three groups with regards to the importance of specific areas of environmental disclosure. The responses were more skewed towards considering most specific areas of disclosure as very important or extremely important, by the environmental activists and pressure groups. This was more so than for the environmental professionals or company respondents who also considered most of these areas as important or very important. / Thesis (M.Env.Dev.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2003.

Part A of this dissertation, represents the literature review and project outline for this study, and includes the definition of the research problem, aims, objectives and the proposed methodology. The literature review considers the emergence of environmental accounting and reporting in the context of the escalating environmental crisis. It reviews the role of accounting prior to the development of the concept of sustainable development, and subsequently focuses specifically on the rise to prominence of environmental reporting and accounting thereafter. It reviews major academic works in this field as well as major international guidelines, standards, protocols and charters on environmental reporting. In addition, the study also reviews the limitations and problems associated with traditional and environmental accounting, and environmental reporting. It proposes a framework that considers the forces influencing environmental reporting, and briefly examines the previous evidence of the contrasting attitudes and perceptions of both preparers and users of such environmental reports. Arising out of this literature review, a study was developed that would measure and compare the expectations of three key stakeholder groups with regard to environmental accounting and reporting, namely: • The companies responsible for preparation • Environmental professionals, who assist in the preparation of these reports or attest as to their validity, and • Environmental activists, pressure groups and non-governmental organisations (NGOs) that rely on such reporting to assess the impact of a company's activities. The study would look at the perceived importance of environmental reports, the areas that are reported on, and the levels of disclosure. It would then contrast the expectations of the above three groups and compare these to the minimum reporting levels required by the only officially endorsed international reporting guideline in South Africa, the Global Reporting Initiative (GRI). The second part of this dissertation (Part B), is presented in the form of a research paper, and is presented in the specific format required by the academic journal Corporate Social Responsibility and Environmental Management, a Wiley InterScience publication, to which it will be submitted for publication, (after final editing to reduce its overall length). This second part includes a brief review of key literature, the aims, objectives and hypothesis of the study. It then details the methodology and the findings, which are discussed in depth. These findings include significant differences that were found between the expectations of the three groups, and differences between these expectations and the reporting specifications of the GRI. The environmental activists and pressure groups were found to expect greater levels of disclosure than professional environmental consultants, who in turn expected higher levels of disclosure than companies and their representatives. There were also significant differences between the responses of the three groups with regards to the importance of specific areas of environmental disclosure. The responses were more skewed towards considering most specific areas of disclosure as very important or extremely important, by the environmental activists and pressure groups. This was more so than for the environmental professionals or company respondents who also considered most of these areas as important or very important. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2003.

Text in Afrikaans / Professionele etiek word nie altyd in ag geneem met besigheidsbesluite nie. Die vordering van kredietversekeringspremies is waarskynlik 'n voorbeeld daarvan. Die uitneem van kredietversekering is dikwels 'n voorwaarde vir die verlening van krediet deur sommige meubelhandelaars. Geweldige finansiele voordele wat voortspruit uit kredietversekeringskemas lei tot uitbuiting van die publiek deur sekere meubelhandelaars. Die verskillende kredietversekeringskemas wat in die meubelhandel toegepas word, voldoen nie aan die vereistes van die Woekerwet, 1968, en die Versekeringswet, 1943, nie. Hierdie oortredings het dikwels 'n wesenlike uitwerking op die geopenbaarde finansiele inligting van verskeie meubelhandelaars. Dit is die ouditeur se verantwoordelikheid om die statutere vereistes met die vordering van kredietversekeringspremies in ag te neem, aangesien dit 'n onwettige optrede, asook 'n onreelmatigheid kragtens algemeen aanvaarde ouditstandaarde is. Die ouditeur behoort toepaslik verslag te doen oor gevolglike wanvoorstellings van die finansiele inligting van die betrokke meubelhandelaars. Hierdie verantwoordelikheid word egter nie deur alle ouditeure nagekom nie. / The taking out of credit insurance is often a condition for the granting of credit by certain furniture traders. Enormous financial gains arising from credit insurance schemes result in exploitation of the public by certain furniture traders. Various credit insurance schemes in the furniture trade contravene the Usury Act, 1968, and the Insurance Act, 1943. These contraventions often materially affect financial information disclosed by certain furniture traders. It is the auditor's responsibility to consider the statutory requirements for the collection of credit insurance premiums, as this is an illegal act and an irregularity in terms of general accepted auditing standards. The auditor's duty is to appropriately report on resulting misrepresentations of financial information of such furniture traders. Some auditors however, do not comply with this responsibility. / Auditing / M. Compt. (Auditing)

The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between the concept of clean audit reports in relation to service delivery. The study was conducted in the Amathole District Municipality in the Eastern Cape Province and centred on the audit outcome of the municipality for the 2013/2014 financial year. A qualitative research design was adopted in order to conduct the study and the data was collected through the conducting of semi-structured interviews. The research sample comprised officers who were employed by the Amathole District Municipality and one manager from the office of the Auditor-General. The key findings of the study revealed that, at present, the concept of a clean audit outcome is used by municipal officers to imply that the performance of an organisation is to be assessed mainly on the basis of evidence which is provided by financial indicators, to the exclusion of non-financial benchmarks. This assumption tends to encourage municipal officers to strive towards impressing auditors, rather than serving their communities through the providing of adequate service delivery. In addition, the auditing of municipalities does not assess their performance in relation to service delivery and the ways in which communities at the local level are affected by it. At present it appears to be beyond the remit of auditors to investigate the validity of the protests which erupt in communities in response to poor service delivery or whether the members of communities and other affected stakeholders are satisfied or dissatisfied with the manner in which services are rendered by their municipalities. Consequently, those who are tasked with the making of decisions in municipalities act upon the recommendations which are made in their audit outcomes and formulate plans in relation to service delivery or projects which do not necessarily accord with the needs of the communities which they are intended to serve. Consequently, on the basis of the findings of this study, it is proposed that assessments of the performance of organisations should incorporate non-financial indicators into the auditing process. Adopting this approach would minimise incidences of municipalities receiving clean audit outcomes while the members of the communities which they serve take to the streets to express their anger and frustration as a result of poor service delivery.

The 1996 Constitution of South Africa and the Public Audit Act of 2004 provide the legislative framework for the Office of the Auditor General of South Africa (OAGSA). The Independent Regulatory Board for Auditors further enriched the interpretation of the framework – for government auditing. Over the years of democratic rule in South Africa, audit performance by State organs was generally poor. Despite the efforts by the OAGSA to improve the performance, very little improvement was notable. Most disturbing was the observation that there was widespread, a prevalence of recurring findings, which indicated that the OAGSA’s recommendations and guidelines were not acted upon, or largely ignored. Firstly, the research study established that the system of capitalist democracy, which comes in different varieties throughout world democracies, indeed brought about a situation where the electorate was effectively removed from its rightful place of being the principal, and had its place taken up by political parties (which are in fact, agents) - which (parties) governed on its (the electorate’s) behalf. This system, taken together with the Principal Agency and the Rational Choice Theories – fully explained the prevalence of maladministration and malfeasance in government in South Africa. Secondly, the study established that the OAGSA has done everything imaginable in its attempts to improve audit performance in government institutions – using the carrot rather than the stick approach. The legislative framework cited above, revealed that the OAGSA has the power to audit and report, while Parliament has the power to enforce corrective action. The lesson of this revelation is: that there is not much that the OAGSA can achieve without a high level of cooperation between itself and Parliament – if audit performance is to be effectively, and appreciably improved in South Africa. A disappointing discovery however was indirectly delivered to the world, through the results of a research study conducted by one Wehner in 2002, on Public Accounts Committees (PACs) (alias Standing Committees on Public Accounts (SCOPAs)) in world democracies. The Wehner study clearly demonstrated that there was nothing contained in these committees’ founding documents or enabling legislation – which in no uncertain terms, directed the committees on what procedures and processes to follow to ensure that their resolutions were acted upon. In other words there was no enforcement mechanism discernible for their resolutions. Thirdly, there were developments in case law in South Africa, which augured well for Constitutional Institutions in general. They are contained in court judgements relating to the mandate of the Office of the Public Protector (OPP). The question at the core of these developments was: whether the decisions or remedial action emanating from the OPP, were binding and enforceable. Two judgements cited as cases in point, one a High Court judgment and another a Supreme Court of Appeal’s (SCA’s), feature in the research report. The SCA, in summary found that decisions of administrative bodies of State – stand in fact and in law, until such time that a court of law invalidates them. The SCA ruled through citing a High Court judgement passed way back in 2004 - that Constitutional Institutions, although not organs of State per se – were certainly included in this 2004 finding, if one considers the rationale of this initial finding, taken together with the purpose for which Constitutional Institutions were established in South Africa in the first place. In conclusion, although visible root causes of poor audit findings appear overall to be poor consequence management and questionable leadership quality in government, the system of capitalist democracy is ultimately to blame. The system certainly had unintended consequences.