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Although many historians consider Joseph II's campaign of 1788 against the Ottoman Turks a failure, no one has yet provided a thorough account of it. This study attempts to put something into the void. / Based mostly on original sources found in the Kriegsarchiv (War Archives) in Vienna, it examines the campaign from the perspective of Joseph II. The first chapter tries to explain how Joseph became involved in a conflict with the Porte. The second chapter covers the period of February-July 1788, when Joseph postponed his offensive on Belgrade until the fall and waited in Zemun on the defensive. The third chapter begins with the Ottoman advance into the Banat of Timisoara in early August 1788 and ends with the Habsburg army's retreat to winter quarters in November. / Despite failing to take Belgrade, the Habsburg army captured strategically important positions for the campaign of 1789. The difficulties encountered cannot be blamed solely on Joseph's poor generalship. Other factors, such as insufficient Russian assistance, a difficult climate and terrain and a surprisingly strong Ottoman effort, must also be considered.

This dissertation presents a comparative overview of the philosophical reforms in the study of history at the Universities of Vienna, Graz, Innsbruck, Padova and Pavia between 1848 and 1855. The study traces; the work of four German and four Italian historians, and highlights the establishment of the history seminar at the University of Vienna (1850). The founding of the Institute of Austrian History in Vienna (1854--1855), marked the beginning of a specialized study of history in the Habsburg Monarchy. / The philosophical reforms, launched in 1849 by Count Leopold Thun, were successfully implemented in Austria, but faced defiance in the Lombardy-Venetia, where universities were hotbeds of nationalism and insurgency. Nevertheless, the appointment of a Vienna-trained historian at the University of Padova (1855), and the founding of philological-historical seminars at the Universities of Pavia (1856) and Padova (1858), paved the way for the eventual professionalization of the study of history in Italy.

Zionism represents a turning point in the rise of the nation-state to its present near-ubiquity, a national movement which did not construct an identity concurrently with its embrace of nationalism, but reconstructed a diaspora to fit it. I explore how early Political Zionists, particularly Theodor Herzl, perceived both the push and pull of nationalism, and why they were drawn to adopt an ideology and political structure whose basic principles, I argue, were intrinsically hostile to Jews. I begin by examining the socialist Moses Hess as a forerunner and microcosm of later Zionism, arguing his work is underpinned by anxiety about social heterogeneity. The second chapter focuses on portrayals of diaspora, its contradictions and the ambivalence they caused towards less assimilated Jews, nonetheless used as models for national identity. I continue by investigating the countries Herzl looked to as partners on the world stage and models of nationhood, arguing his vision of nationhood was far broader than that of most nationalists and involved a recognised role among other nations. The fourth chapter concerns understandings of 'homeland' and the relationship between people and territory, concluding Zionism's effect is achieved, not just by inhabiting Palestine, but by public desire and effort to do so. I devote my final chapter to concepts of modernity, its perception as both paradoxical and inescapable, and how national historical narratives arrange history into a rational, linear structure. While Zionists left many presumptions of nationalism and modernity unchallenged, most importantly that both nation and state transcend political divides, my conclusion stresses those presumptions they accepted, those aspects they saw as inescapable, and those they pragmatically performed belief in, to achieve Gentile acceptance of Jewish nationhood. I surmise that it was this sense of inevitability, along with the difficulties of diaspora, which gave Jews reason to make displays of accepting the nation-state.

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