Le développement de bactéries sous la forme de communautés multicellulaires, appelées biofilms, engendre la formation d’un environnement très hétérogène dans lequel les bactéries sont confrontées à différents stress nécessitant un rapide réajustement de leur métabolisme et de leur physiologie. Cette capacité d’adaptation ainsi que des études transcriptomiques, suggèrent fortement que les bactéries vivant sous forme de biofilm puissent présenter des propriétés nouvelles en comparaison à des bactéries planctoniques. Cela nous a conduit à examiner si la formation de biofilm chez Escherichia coli pouvait engendrer des modifications originales de l’enveloppe bactérienne. Nous avons tout d’abord comparé la structure du lipopolysaccharide de bactéries issues de cultures planctoniques et biofilms et mis en évidence que la formation de biofilm chez les bactéries à Gram négatif entraine une augmentation du niveau de palmitoylation du lipide A dépendante de l’enzyme PagP et contribuant à la tolérance des bactéries aux agents antimicrobiens. L’étude des mécanismes sous-jacents a permis de déterminer que cette augmentation du niveau de palmitoylation est, en partie, causée par une induction de l’expression de pagP qui est spécifique au biofilm et regulée par RcsB en réponse à l’osmolarité du biofilm. Nous avons également étudié l’impact de l’adaptation des bactéries au mode de vie biofilm sur la structure de la paroi bactérienne et mis en évidence des différences dans les ponts inter peptidiques présents au sein du peptidoglycane qui pourraient conduire à une augmentation de la rigidité de l’enveloppe bactérienne ainsi qu’à la résistance au stress chez les bactéries. Pour finir, nous avons examiné si les protéines SPFH (QmcA HflK HflC YqiK) associées à des microrégions spécialisées de la membrane -ou radeaux lipidiques- pouvaient jouer un rôle dans la formation de biofilm chez E. coli. Alors que les gènes codant pour ces protéines ne semblent pas être induits en biofilm ni être essentiels à son développement, nous avons identifié plusieurs régulateurs influençant leur expression ainsi que plusieurs fonctions associées aux protéines SPFH que nous sommes en train d’étudier. / The development of bacterial multicellular communities, called biofilms, creates a highly heterogeneous environment, in which bacteria subjected to various stresses need to quickly readjust their metabolism and physiology. This capacity of adaptation, confirmed by many transcriptome analyses, strongly suggest that biofilm bacteria could display novel properties compared to individualized cells. This prompted us to investigate whether biofilm formation could trigger original membrane modifications in Escherichia coli. We first compared the lipopolysaccharide structure of planktonic and biofilm bacteria and demonstrated that biofilms formed by Gram-negative bacteria undergo an increase in lipid A palmitoylation mediated by the PagP enzyme and contributing to bacterial resistance to antimicrobial peptides and host immune defenses. Investigation of the underlying mechanisms of this phenomenon allowed determining that increased lipid A palmitoylation is, at least partially, due to a biofilm-specific and RcsB-dependent induction of pagP expression in response to biofilm osmolarity. We also investigated how bacterial adaptation to the biofilm environment could impact the cell wall structure and identified differences in peptidoglycan linkages that could increase cell rigidity and bacterial resistance to stress. Finally, we investigated the potential role in biofilm formation of E. coli SPFH proteins (QmcA HflK HflC YqiK) associated with dynamic membrane microdomains - or lipid rafts-. Whereas SPFH encoding genes are not differentially expressed in biofilm and are not essential for biofilm formation, we identified several regulators impacting their expression and several functions associated to SPFH proteins that we identified is currently under investigation.

The Fas pathway is critical for the maintenance of normal T cell homeostasis. Humans and mice with defects in this pathway exhibit the accumulation of large numbers of peripheral lymphocytes and lupus-like autoimmunity. A major feature of these organisms is the accumulation of non-NK TCRαβ+CD4-CD8- “double negative” (DN) T cells. While regulatory T cells (Tregs) with the DN phenotype have been extensively characterized in Fas-sufficient mice and humans, limited data exist on the role of DN T cells as Tregs in Fas-deficient animals. In fact, most of the literature suggests that the DN T cells accumulating in Fas-deficiency states are pathogenic, contributing to secondary lymph node enlargement and autoimmune disease. In this body of work, data are presented that illustrate that Fas-deficient lymphoproliferative (LPR) DN T cells can act as Tregs in an interferon γ (IFNγ)- and Fas ligand (FasL)-dependent fashion toward Fas-sufficient T cells. LPR DN T cells needed to be able to secrete and respond to IFNγ in order to upregulate surface FasL, in order to ameliorate GVHD mediated by CD4+ T cells in vivo and to suppress the proliferation of and kill activated CD4+ T cells in vitro. FcRγ, a key molecule involved in innate immune responses, can substitute for CD3ζ in the T cell receptor (TCR) of mouse and human T cells in certain circumstances; in doing so, it is essential for the regulatory function of TCR transgenic DN Tregs. FcRγ-deficient LPR mice were found to have exacerbated T cell accumulation and early mortality. We show that while FcRγ expression was required for LPR DN T cells to regulate CD4+ and CD8+ T cells responding to alloantigens in vitro and in vivo, it does not control autologous lymphoproliferation in LPR mice by supporting the function of a regulatory cell, nor does it affect the rate of proliferation of LPR T cells in vivo. Instead, FcRγ-expressing LPR CD4+, CD8+ and DN T cells were found to be undergoing apoptosis at a high rate in vivo, and in contrast to their FcRγ-deficient counterparts, FcRγ+ LPR DN T cells were capable of undergoing TCR restimulation-induced cell death (RICD). The data presented in this thesis therefore show that LPR DN T cells can exhibit IFNγ-, FasL- and FcRγ-dependent regulatory function, and also illustrate a previously unknown function for FcRγ in controlling the expansion of Fas-deficient T cells. The implications of these data for autoimmune lymphoproliferative syndromes, and normal T cell homeostasis, are discussed.

The Fas pathway is critical for the maintenance of normal T cell homeostasis. Humans and mice with defects in this pathway exhibit the accumulation of large numbers of peripheral lymphocytes and lupus-like autoimmunity. A major feature of these organisms is the accumulation of non-NK TCRαβ+CD4-CD8- “double negative” (DN) T cells. While regulatory T cells (Tregs) with the DN phenotype have been extensively characterized in Fas-sufficient mice and humans, limited data exist on the role of DN T cells as Tregs in Fas-deficient animals. In fact, most of the literature suggests that the DN T cells accumulating in Fas-deficiency states are pathogenic, contributing to secondary lymph node enlargement and autoimmune disease. In this body of work, data are presented that illustrate that Fas-deficient lymphoproliferative (LPR) DN T cells can act as Tregs in an interferon γ (IFNγ)- and Fas ligand (FasL)-dependent fashion toward Fas-sufficient T cells. LPR DN T cells needed to be able to secrete and respond to IFNγ in order to upregulate surface FasL, in order to ameliorate GVHD mediated by CD4+ T cells in vivo and to suppress the proliferation of and kill activated CD4+ T cells in vitro. FcRγ, a key molecule involved in innate immune responses, can substitute for CD3ζ in the T cell receptor (TCR) of mouse and human T cells in certain circumstances; in doing so, it is essential for the regulatory function of TCR transgenic DN Tregs. FcRγ-deficient LPR mice were found to have exacerbated T cell accumulation and early mortality. We show that while FcRγ expression was required for LPR DN T cells to regulate CD4+ and CD8+ T cells responding to alloantigens in vitro and in vivo, it does not control autologous lymphoproliferation in LPR mice by supporting the function of a regulatory cell, nor does it affect the rate of proliferation of LPR T cells in vivo. Instead, FcRγ-expressing LPR CD4+, CD8+ and DN T cells were found to be undergoing apoptosis at a high rate in vivo, and in contrast to their FcRγ-deficient counterparts, FcRγ+ LPR DN T cells were capable of undergoing TCR restimulation-induced cell death (RICD). The data presented in this thesis therefore show that LPR DN T cells can exhibit IFNγ-, FasL- and FcRγ-dependent regulatory function, and also illustrate a previously unknown function for FcRγ in controlling the expansion of Fas-deficient T cells. The implications of these data for autoimmune lymphoproliferative syndromes, and normal T cell homeostasis, are discussed.