Maize is the staple food for most South Africans. This implies that any damage to the maize crop will affect food security of many South Africans. Although Eastern Cape Province is not a traditionally maize producing area, smallholder farmers in the province produce it mostly for subsistence purposes and some sell the surplus on the local market or use it to secure other good through barter trading. In South Africa, insect-resistant Bt maize/yieldgard has been used commercially for approximately 10 years now. Available impact studies on Bt maize reveal that, this technology is beneficial not only to farmers but consumers of maize products as well. Welfare gains as well as positive effects for human health are realised by both groups. Due to the costs and effectiveness associated with traditional and conventional maize stem borer control methods, Bt technology has the potential to be part of the solution. This thesis has attempted to investigate the economic viability of planting Bt maize seeds under smallholder farming conditions and identify factors as well as perceptions relating to attributes of Bt maize and to analyze the relationships between those perceptions and choices regarding use of Bt technology. Data was collected from 90 households who were selected using purposive sampling through the use of the snowball method. To collect data, a questionnaire was administered through face-to-face interviews. Gross margin analysis revealed that Bt maize is a more profitable option as compared to conventional maize seeds. Furthermore, econometric analyses, through use of the binomial regression model revealed that perceptions could be used to distinguish between users and non-users of Bt maize seed in the Eastern Cape Province. Results of inferential analysis indicate that the statistically significant variables at 5% level are gene erosion, quality and nutrition of products and food labels for Bt maize products perceptions. On the other hand, low expenses, seed market availability and farmers’ knowledge perceptions were significant at 10%. These findings suggest that an adjustment in each one of the significant variables can significantly influence the probability of Bt maize adoption. In view of the research findings, several policy proposals are suggested to support policy formulation. Key words: Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) maize, yieldgard, smallholder farmers, perceptions, Flagstaff, gross margin analysis, binomial logistic regression model, Eastern Cape Province.

My dissertation research examined the effect of the cultivation of insect-resistant Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) maize on the soil environment with a goal of understanding how to obtain a balance between technological advancement and maintenance of a healthy soil ecosystem. Although Bt plants may help to reduce pesticide use, conferring benefits to farm workers and the environment, there are still unresolved questions about how the cultivation of Bt plants affects soil organisms. For this dissertation project, I used 14 different genotypes of Bt maize and non-Bt maize (Zea mays) to investigate the effects of transgenic Bt plants on the colonization ability, abundance, and diversity of symbiotic arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) in the soil ecosystem over time. My greenhouse studies demonstrated that Bt maize plants exhibited reduced AMF colonization across multiple Bt genotypes and that effects were most pronounced when fertilizer levels were limited and spore density was high. In addition, I found that although differences in AMF colonization between Bt and non-Bt maize were difficult to detect in the field, spore density was reduced in Bt field plots after just one growing season. When I tested the effect of plot history on AMF and plant growth, I found that Bt and non-Bt maize plants had higher leaf chlorophyll content when grown in plots previously cultivated with the same maize line as the previous year, indicative of a positive feedback effect. I also examined potential mechanisms contributing to the reduced AMF colonization observed in Bt maize in greenhouse studies and determined that follow-up experiments should continue to investigate differences in root apoplastic invertase activity and root permeability in Bt and non-Bt maize. Future investigations would also benefit from examining potential differences in root exudate profiles and volatile organic compounds between Bt and non-Bt cultivars. Taken together, my dissertation results suggest that, while difficult to detect in the field, reductions in AMF colonization in Bt maize roots may be ecologically significant as they could lead to a decrease in the abundance of AMF propagules in the soil over time, potentially impacting soil structure and function in areas where Bt crop cultivation is high.

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Depuis 1985, plus de 10 millions d’hectares de forêt ont été traités au Canada contre la tordeuse des bourgeons de l’épinette (TBE) avec l’insecticide biologique Btk. Toutefois, aucune étude ne s’est penchée sur les effets de ces traitements sur les sous-bois, bien qu’ils contiennent la majorité de la diversité végétale des forêts boréales et représentent une source importante de nourriture pour plusieurs animaux, dont le caribou forestier, une espèce menacée. Ainsi, il semble impératif de déterminer quelle fréquence de traitements de Btk serait idéale pour réduire les perturbations aux communautés végétales de sous-bois. À l’aide d’un dispositif expérimental où les populations de TBE sont contrôlées, nous avons évalué l’influence de différentes modalités d’épandage de Btk sur la défoliation des peuplements et sur les sous-bois. Nos résultats montrent qu’une diminution de la fréquence des traitements influence positivement la lumière disponible aux sous-bois, la richesse, la présence d’espèces intolérantes à l’ombre et la production de petits fruits, particulièrement dans les stations non traitées, où la défoliation était maximale. Or, un sous-bois diversifié comprenant des espèces intolérantes à l’ombre et de nombreux petits fruits est un habitat idéal pour l’orignal et ses prédateurs communs avec ceux du caribou, l’ours et le loup. Une diminution du contrôle des épidémies de TBE affecterait donc négativement le caribou forestier en augmentant potentiellement le risque de prédation, ce qui est un des principaux facteurs limitant ces populations. Des traitements bisannuels de Btk pourraient donc aider à la protection de l’habitat des populations résiduelles de caribou forestier. / Since 1985, more than 10 million hectares of Canadian forests were treated against spruce budworm (SBW) epidemics using the Btk biological insecticide, but no study has evaluated the effects of these interventions on understory vegetation. Since the forest floor host most of plant diversity in boreal forests and provides critical wildlife habitat for, amongst others, woodland caribou, it is crucial to determine the best Btk treatment frequency to reduce wood losses, application costs, and disturbances to understory communities. In an experimental design, we tested the influence of different spraying frequencies for SBW control on tree defoliation and understory vegetation. We found positive relationships between a decrease in treatment frequency and light availability in the understory, richness, shade-intolerant species cover, and fruit production, particularly in control plots, where defoliation was maximal. An increase in shade-intolerant species and fruit production could provide high-quality forage for moose and its predators, wolves and bears, which can increase predation pressure on caribou. A decrease in SBW control may thus negatively affect woodland caribou by increasing predation risks, the main factor limiting caribou populations in managed forests. Consequently, we suggest that SBW control could help maintain woodland caribou habitat during a SBW epidemic and recommend Btk applications every 2 years to prevent both wood loss and further degradation of woodland caribou habitat. Key