The morphology of bainite plates and widmanstätten needles formed in ordered bcc β* phase of a Ag-45 at. pct Cd alloy at temperatures 160-320° C was studied by optical and scanning electron microscopy. Both precipitate forms were similar in appearance to precipitates reported for Cu-Zn alloys. The structure of the bainite plates in the various stages of their growth was studied by X-ray diffraction and by transmission electron microscopy. Initially, the plates formed with a 3R stacking fault modulation of the fee structure and contained a high density of random stacking faults. The stacking faults annealed out during a prolonged isothermal treatment and the structure gradually changed to a regular fee. The orientation relationship between the bcc matrix and the fcc bainite was as follows: [111]b 0.7° from [011]f, [110]b 1.1° from [100]f and [011]b 4.3° from the stacking fault plane pole [111]f. The habit plane of the bainite plates, determined by two surface trace analysis, was close to (144)b. The surface relief of the plates was observed by the interference microscopy. It was in the form of a simple tilt indicating an invariant plane strain transformation. The features of the transformation agreed with the predictions of the Bowles-Mackenzie theory of martensite formation. The growth kinetics of both bainite plates and widmanstätten needles were measured by interrupted annealing and scanning electron microscopy. Using the bainite thickening kinetics measured at 160, 200 and 240°C, the Frank-Zener model for growth of planar precipitates, and supersaturation data obtained from the Ag-Cd metastable phase diagram enabled the effective chemical diffusivities, Deff , to be calculated for the three transformation temperatures. The results were in good agreement with the expected diffusivities. The lengthening kinetics of bainite plates at 160°C and of widmanstätten needles at 240°C were analyzed using Trivedi's model for diffusion-controlled growth. Deff obtained from the lengthening kinetics of the needles was in good agreement with the D value obtained from the thickening kinetics of the plates, indicating that widmanstätten needles lengthened and bainite plates thickened at rates controlled by volume diffusion. Bainite plates lengthened only in the early stage of growth and at a rate approximately 180 times larger than that permitted by volume diffusion. It was concluded that the morphology, structure and other characteristics of the freshly formed bainite plates were consistent with their formation by a thermally activated martensitic process. / Applied Science, Faculty of / Materials Engineering, Department of / Graduate

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High carbon bainitic steel plates could surpass quench and tempered martensitic counterparts for fabrication of ammunition- and blast-resistant armours. Mechanical properties, microstructure and reaction kinetics of a commercially available carbide-free nanoscale bainite alloy were characterized. Based on the initial characterization and a comprehensive review of the literature a new alloy with lower carbon, higher silicon and cobalt additions was designed and processed into hot-rolled plates (10x10mm and 300x300mm) using CanmetMATERIALS pilot-scale facilities. The heat treated plates achieved strength above 2 GPa with elongation of 14%. Thorough analysis with electron backscattered diffraction revealed that the microstructure consisted of bainitic ferrite laths, islands of retained austenite, areas of mixed martensite-austenite (MA). Transmission electron microscopy confirmed the fine scale of bainitic ferrite and the presence of thin films of retained austenite encompassing bainite laths. Dilatometric study of the new alloy revealed that forming bainite at higher transformation temperatures, 275°C versus 250°C and 225°C, led to faster overall reaction kinetics and higher final fractions of bainite within 18 hours of isothermal holding. Although it is expected that the fraction of bainite increases at lower temperatures, substantial prolonged holding time is required for completion of the reaction. Microstructural features and particularly bainite lath thickness depended on bainite formation temperature. Ausforming, deformation of austenite at 600°C for 25-45% strain prior to decomposition to bainite, however led to a decrease in reaction rate and final fraction of bainite. Tensile testing of austempered specimens showed that higher transformation temperature yielded a stronger microstructure, which was attributed to the formation of thinner bainitic ferrite laths. Higher transformation temperatures led to an increase in ductility. Tensile testing of the ausformed specimens showed a reduction in both strength and ductility. A negative correlation was seen between the amount of MA areas in the microstructure and total elongation. / Thesis / Master of Science in Materials Science and Engineering (MSMSE) / This project has adopted the science of bainite transformation to develop a suitable alloy and processing method for the fabrication of very strong armour plates at a lower cost compared to commercially available grades. The pilot-scale casting and processing facility at CanmetMATERIALS centre was used to produce full sized, 1ft (304.8mm) by 1ft (304.5mm), prototype armour plates. The plates were subsequently characterized using a variety of techniques to determine interplay between processing parameters, microstructure and the ensuing final performance. The optimized alloy, tailored processing parameters, and characterization information constitute the contribution of the present work to the current state of research.

Les aciers avancés à haute résistance (AHSS) de 3ème génération ont l’avantage de combiner résistance et ductilité. Ces aciers multi-phasés sont appréciés pour les applications dans l’industrie automobile pour leurs propriétés mécaniques, dues notamment à la présence d’austénite métastable permettant une transformation induite par la plasticité (effet TRIP- Transformation Induced Plasticity).L’objectif de ce travail a été d’étudier l’effet du microalliage sur les transformations de phases et la précipitation dans de tels aciers. Trois nuances ont été étudiées : une référence sans microalliage, une avec ajout de niobium et une avec ajout de vanadium. Elles ont été caractérisées au fil de la route métallurgique composée d’un recuit intermédiaire et d’un recuit final caractéristique des aciers bainitiques à effet TRIP.Des méthodes ex-situ et in-situ ont été mises en oeuvre. Les caractérisations in-situ pendant les traitements thermiques incluent une étude des transformations de phases par diffraction de rayons X à haute énergie (HEXRD) et une étude de la précipitation par diffusion de rayons X à petits angles (SAXS), utilisant le rayonnement synchrotron.La morphologie des grains a été observée par microscopie optique et diffraction d'électrons rétrodiffusés (EBSD) au Microscope Electronique à Balayage (MEB). L’imagerie des précipités a été effectuée par Microscopie Electronique en Transmission (MET) en imagerie en champ sombre, leur composition a été précisée par analyse dispersive en énergie (EDS) et leur localisation étudiée grâce à l’outil de nano-diffraction ACOM/ASTAR.L’ensemble de ces expériences a permis de mettre en évidence l’effet du traitement thermique et de la composition chimique sur la quantité d’austénite présente ainsi que sur sa teneur en carbone, qui sont les principaux paramètres contrôlant l’effet TRIP. La présence du microalliage se traduit par des variations de ces paramètres, liés à la fois à la présence de précipités contenant ces éléments et à leur présence en solution solide. / 3rd generation Advanced High Strength Steels (AHSS) have the advantage of combining strength and ductility. These multi-phase steels are appreciated for applications in the automotive industry for their mechanical properties, notably due to the presence of metastable austenite allowing Tranformation Induced Plasticity (TRIP effect).The objective of this work was to study the effect of microalloying on phase transformations and precipitation in such steels. Three grades have been studied: a reference without microalloying, one with niobium addition, and one with vanadium addition. They have been characterised through the metallurgical route composed of an intermediate annealing, following by a final annealing characteristic of TRIP-assisted bainitic steels.Both ex-situ and in-situ methods have been applied. In-situ characterisation during thermal treatments includes phase transformation study by High-Energy X-ray Diffraction (HEXRD) and precipitation study by Small Angle X-ray Scattering (SAXS), both performed with synchrotron radiation.Grain morphology has been observed by optical microscopy and Electron Back-Scatter Diffraction (EBSD) in a Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM). Imaging of precipitates has been made in Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) via dark-field imaging, their composition has been evauated by Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS) and their localization studied thanks to the nano-diffraction tool ACOM/ASTAR.All these experiments made it possible to highlight the effect of heat treatment and chemical composition on the amount of austenite present and on its carbon content, which are the main parameters controlling the TRIP effect. The presence of the microalloying results in variations in these parameters, related both to the presence of precipitates containing these elements and to their presence in solid solution.

The aim of the work presented was to investigate the effects of upper bainite on impact toughness in quench and tempered low alloy plate steels. The experimental research included construction of CCT diagrams by dilatometry, verification of phases by optical microscopy (OM), Vickers hardness, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM) on precipitates extracted by carbon replica and by electrolytic means and finally impact testing of Charpy specimens with mixed bainite:martensite microstructures. Bainite was formed in High Chromium Low Molybdenum (HCrLMo) and in High Molybdenum Low Chromium (HMoLCr) steel samples by isothermal annealing within the bainite C-curve of the respective CCT diagrams. The isothermal kinetics of the upper bainite transformation was modelled with the Johnson Mehl Avrami Kolmogorov (JMAK) model. Avrami exponents of 1.4 and 1.3 were obtained for the HCrLMo and HMoLCr steels respectively which indicated linear growth with a considerable lengthening rate of laths and negligible thickening. The measurably slower growth kinetics in the HMoLCr steel as observed in the JMAK model and the higher hardenability with reference to its CCT diagram, suggested a strong Mo alloying element effect. The stronger effect of Mo compared to Cr was attributed to a solute drag like effect. The effect of upper bainite in a tempered martensitic matrix was investigated for the following amounts of bainite; 0%, 10%, 25%, 60%, 75%, 90% and 100%. The impact toughness of the mixed bainite:martensite samples was evaluated against the toughness of 100% bainite and 100% martensite. It was demonstrated that upper bainite reduces the total absorbed impact energy by an adverse effect on crack nucleation energy and crack propagation energy. / Dissertation (MSc)--University of Pretoria, 2013. / gm2014 / Materials Science and Metallurgical Engineering / Unrestricted

In this study the effects of different austempering times and temperatures on impact toughness, hardness and fracture toughness properties of 35NiCrMoV12.5 gun barrel steel are investigated. 300 &deg / C, 325 &deg / C and 350 &deg / C were chosen as austempering temperatures. Isothermal holding times at these temperatures were chosen as 1 minute, 10 minutes, 1 hour and 10 hours. It was found that, 350 &deg / C being an exception, austempering temperature and impact toughness has an inverse relationship and impact toughness increases as isothermal holding time increases. However this behavior is valid until some point. Prolonged transformation times causes toughness to decrease. Hardness measurements revealed that, as isothermal holding time increases, hardness decreases. In order to compare the mechanical properties obtained by austempering with that of conventional cooling and tempering, 400 &deg / C was chosen as the tempering temperature and applied to both charpy impact and fracture toughness specimens. It was found that conventional cooling and tempering produced tougher structures. Size of the fracture toughness specimens might have caused an undesired situation such as incomplete transformation to bainite. Optical and scanning electron microscopy was used in order to analyze the microstructures obtained after each treatment. It was observed that the majority of the morphologies occurred is lower bainite. On the other hand, martensitic structures were observed almost at every temperature.

Abstract The aim of this work was to study systematically the effects of composition and processing on austenite grain growth and static recrystallization (SRX) kinetics, austenite decomposition under controlled cooling as well as microstructures, mechanical properties and weldability of hot rolled low carbon bainitic (LCB) steels. The results showed that the coarsening of austenite grain structure is influenced by the chemical composition. Steels with Nb-Ti alloying exhibited fine and uniform austenite grain size up to 1125 °C, whereas higher temperatures led to formation of the bimodal grain structures. However, with Nb-Ti-B microalloying, the abnormal grain growth was already observed at 1050 °C. SRX rate at roughing temperatures, determined by the stress relaxation method, was found to be retarded markedly by Mo, Nb and B alloying. For the test conditions investigated, the decomposition of austenite started in the temperature range from 780 °C to below 550 °C. All alloying elements with the exception of Nb (0.04–0.10 wt-%) decreased the phase transformation temperatures and increased the hardness of dilatometric specimens. Detailed microstructural examinations enabled the identification of 4 different ferrite morphologies: polygonal ferrite, quasi-polygonal ferrite (QF), granular bainitic ferrite (GB) and bainitic ferrite (BF), generally as a mixed microstructure consisting of 2–3 types morphologies. Consistent with the microstructures detected in dilatometric experiments, the microstructures of rolled plates comprise various combinations of low C ferrite morphologies. These microstructure types provided the yield strengths from 500 MPa up to 850 MPa in hot rolled condition and from 500 MPa to 950 MPa in heat-treated condition (600 °C/1h). The yield strengths from 500 MPa to 570 MPa were mainly related to QF microstructures in as-rolled condition, while the steels with the yield strength from 570 to 700 MPa had GB-QF microstructures. Steels with the yield strengths above 700 MPa consisted of BF. The most effective alloying element regarding the strength properties is B. Also C, Mn, Cr, Mo and Ni have strong influences, but Nb in the range of 0.05–0.10 wt-% is ineffective. Strengthening with B and Mo was detrimental to toughness. Alloying with Ni and Mn is beneficial to good strength and toughness combination. Mn, Mo, Nb and B contents mainly dictate CGHAZ toughness.

Les aciers bainitiques sans carbure font partie d'une nouvelle génération d’aciers à très haute résistance, présentant des limites d’élasticité élevées et un excellent compromis entre résistance mécanique et ductilité. Leurs propriétés sont liées à la spécificité de leur microstructure qui fait intervenir plusieurs constituants (bainite, austénite et martensite) imbriqués selon une topologie particulière (colonies lamellaires et ilots résiduels). De nombreuses questions restent cependant en suspens quant aux liens existant entre paramètres microstructuraux et propriétés mécaniques. Ce travail de thèse vise ainsi à explorer ces relations dans différents aciers bainitiques sans carbure élaborés par traitement de trempe étagée. Diverses techniques de caractérisation in situ et post mortem ont été mises en oeuvre pour analyser qualitativement et quantitativement les microstructures résultant de la décomposition de l'austénite en conditions isothermes. L'influence de la température de maintien isotherme et de la concentration en carbone sur la microstructure et la microtexture a ainsi été mise en évidence. Un traitement de trempe étagée réalisé sous Ms a également permis d'élaborer une microstructure composite constituée de martensite revenue, de ferrite bainitique et d'austénite résiduelle. Des essais de traction et de cisaillement ont permis d'évaluer les propriétés mécaniques de ces aciers et notamment d'estimer les contributions isotropes et cinématiques de leur écrouissage. Les résultats ont ensuite été analysés à la lumière des informations microstructurales et l'influence de certains constituants a été mise en évidence. Le comportement de la bainite sans carbure élaborée sous Ms a été appréhendé par une approche micromécanique basée sur une loi des mélanges entre la martensite revenue et le composé bainite – austénite résiduelle / Carbide-free bainitic steels are part of the 3rd generation of advanced high strength steels, which exhibit high yield strength and an excellent compromise between tensile strength and ductility. These ground – breaking properties are achieved thanks to the characteristics of their microstructure which is constituted of different phases (bainite, austenite and martensite) organized in a specific way (typical bainitic colonies and residual islands). However, relationships between microstructural features and mechanical properties are yet to be thoroughly established. In the frame of this PhD, we investigated these relationships in carbide-free bainitic steels elaborated by an austempering process. Various means of characterization were used in situ and post mortem to analyze qualitatively and quantitatively microstructures elaborated by the decomposition of the austenite in isothermal conditions. The influence of the austempering temperature and the carbon content on the microstructures has been highlighted. Moreover, austempering under Ms allowed elaborating a microstructure constituted of tempered martensite, bainitic ferrite and residual austenite. Tensile and shear tests were performed in order to evaluate their mechanical properties and to estimate the kinematical and isotropic contributions of the workhardening. Results were analyzed in the light of the microstructural characterizations and the effects of some microstructural features have been highlighted. The mechanical behavior of the bainite elaborated under Ms was estimated by a micromechanical approach based on a law of mixtures between the tempered martensite and the compound made of bainitic ferrite and residual austenite

A systematic survey of morphology of bainite and proeutectoid ferrite was carried out in order to validate some old thoughts of bainite transformation mechanism. It is confirmed that there is no morphological evidence supporting a sharp change neither between Widmanstätten ferrite and the ferritic component of upper bainite, nor between upper and lower bainite. Both Widmanstätten ferrite and upper bainite start with precipitation of ferrite plates at a grain boundary while lower bainite starts with intragranular nucleation. In case of grain boundary nucleation, a group of parallel plates with same crystallographic orientation to the parent austenite grain forms. This process is followed by a second stage of decomposition of the austenitic interspace, which remained in between the primary ferrite plates. At high temperature, the austenitic interspace would either retain as thin slabs or transform into pearlite through a nodule originated from a grain boundary. At lower temperature, cementite precipitation starts to be possible and initiates simultaneous growth of ferrite. Generally, there are two modes of such eutectoid reactions operating in the second stage, i.e. a degenerate and a cooperative mode, which would lead to typical upper and lower bainite, respectively, in definition of carbides morphology. Both upper and lower bainite according to this definition are observed in a wide temperature range. A sharp temperature between the upper and lower bainite structures thus exists only when the definition is based on their nucleation sites, i.e. grain boundary nucleation for upper bainite and intragranular nucleation for lower bainite. Supposing that the first stage is a diffusionless process it should have a high growth rate to prevent carbon diffusion. This is not supported by lengthening rate obtained in current study as well as data from literature for Fe-C alloys. Finally, it is shown that the “subunits” play no role in the lengthening process of bainite. / <p>QC 20170523</p>