São apresentados os resultados do estudo das propriedades eletroquímicas do eletrodo de diamante dopado com boro (DDB) e do eletrodo de DDB modificado diretamente pelo método Sol-Gel com PbOx, para a determinação de carbaril. Mostrou-se que uma polarização anódica (3,0 V vs Ag/AgCl, 30 min) seguida de uma catódica (-3,0 V vs Ag/AgCl, 30 min), em meio ácido, são apropriadas para otimizar o desempenho catalítico da superfície. As imagens de AFM mostraram alterações topológicas significativas no eletrodo de PbOx/DDB, assim como as imagens digitais apresentaram uma provável mistura de óxidos de chumbo depositados na superfície do DDB. Caracterizações físicas do modificador PbOx foram realizadas com as técnicas de Microscopia Eletrônica de Varredura (MEV), Difratometria de raios-X (DRX) e Energia Dispersiva de raios-X (EDS). A MEV verificou os aspectos morfológicos da amostra e revelou que as partículas do modificador tinham formatos e tamanhos diferentes, distribuídas irregularmente. O difratograma de DRX confirmou a existência de uma mistura de óxidos de chumbo, produzida pelo método Sol-Gel e a análise por EDS mostrou a presença dos elementos chumbo e oxigênio, com proporção atômica de 43:57 (Pb:O). Para a determinação eletroanalítica do pesticida carbaril, empregou-se a técnica de Voltametria de Onda Quadrada (SWV) em tampão Britton-Robinson 4,0 x 10-2 mol L-1 (pH 6,0), com acréscimo de alíquotas obtidas de uma solução estoque de carbaril 1,0 x 10-2 mol L-1 em acetonitrila. Os parâmetros utilizados foram: frequência de 10 s-1, amplitude de pulso de 100 mV, incremento de potencial de 2 mV, potencial de pré-tratamento catódico de -1,1 V no tempo de 10 s. Curvas analíticas foram apresentadas para os dois eletrodos, mostrando que o eletrodo de DDB apresentou um limite de detecção (LD) de 2,0 µmol L-1. Já o eletrodo PbOx/DDB, um LD de 0,9 µmol L-1, baixo o suficiente em relação ao limite máximo de resíduo permitido pela ANVISA para a presença do pesticida em amostras de culturas agrícolas. A repetibilidade das medidas com o eletrodo de PbOx/DDB resultou em um desvio padrão relativo de 4,6% e a reprodutibilidade, em 5,2%. Em um estudo das velocidades de varredura, mostrou que a oxidação do carbaril é controlada por difusão e ocorre de maneira irreversível na superfície do eletrodo de PbOx/DDB. A técnica de SWV também foi aplicada em amostras reais de água artificialmente contaminadas de dois córregos da cidade de São Carlos - SP (Córrego Santa Maria do Leme e Córrego do Gregório), ambas tamponadas (pH 6,0), utilizando o eletrodo de PbOx/DDB. Com o objetivo de se comparar a precisão e a sensibilidade da SWV, foram obtidos espectros de UV-Vis em 280 nm e as correspondentes curvas analíticas para o carbaril em tampão BR e nas amostras dos córregos, num intervalo de concentrações de 5,0 x 10-6 a 3,5 x 10-5 mol L-1. O LD e o limite de quantificação (LQ) em solução tampão BR, calculados a partir dos experimentos de SWV, foram de 0,9 x 10-6 mol L-1 e 7,44 x 10-6 mol L-1, respectivamente. Para a técnica de UV-Vis, o LD foi de 2,6 x 10-5 mol L-1 e o LQ de 8,68 x 10-5 mol L-1, indicando que o método eletroanalítico é capaz de apresentar melhores resultados para a análise da oxidação de carbaril. Experimentos de eletrólises potenciostáticas a 3,0 V por 21 horas, acopladas a um detector de UV-Vis, mostraram que em solução tampão BR, o decaimento da concentração de carbaril para o eletrodo de DDB foi de 14,9%, ao passo que, para o eletrodo de PbOx/DDB, foi de 39,3%. Sendo assim, o eletrodo de PbOx/DDB mostrou melhores resultados, com uma excelente atividade catalítica, superior ao eletrodo de DDB sem modificação. / It is presented the results obtained in the study of electrochemical properties of the boron doped electrode (BDD) and of the BDD modified with PbOx by the Sol-Gel method, for the quantitative determination of carbaryl. It has been showed that an anodic polarization (3.0 V vs Ag/AgCl, 30 min) followed by a cathodic one (-3.0 V vs Ag/AgCl, 30 min), in acid medium, are appropriated to enhance the catalytic activity of the surface. The AFM images showed significant topologic alterations in the PbOx/DDB surface, moreover the digital imaging showed a mixture of lead oxides deposited in the DDB surface. Physical modifications of the PbOx modifier were carried out with Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), X-ray Diffraction Spectroscopy (XRD) and Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (EDS). SEM measurements illustrated the morphologic aspects of the samples surfaces and showed that the modifier coating had shape and size distinct from the bare BDD surface and that it was irregularly distributed throughout the surface. The XRD difractogram confirmed the existence of a mixture of lead oxides, provided by the Sol-Gel procedure and the EDS indicated the presence of lead and oxygen in a 43:57 atomic proportion (Pb:O). For the electroanalytical determination of carbaryl, the Square Wave Voltammetry (SWV) technique was employed in Britton-Robinson buffer solution 4.0 x 10-2 mol L-1 (pH 6.0), with the additions of aliquots from a 1.0 x 10-2 mol L-1 cabaryl in acetonitrile. The voltammetric parameters were optimized and used as frequency of 10 s-1, pulse amplitude of 100 mV, potential increment of 2 mV, cathodic pre-treatment potential of -1.1 V during 10 s. Analytical curves were obtained for both electrodes (BDD and BDD modified with PbOx) with the limit of detection limit (LOD) calculated for BDD of 2.0 µmol L-1. On the other hand, for PbOx modified electrode the calculated LOD was 0.9 µmol L-1, below the maximum residue limit allowed by ANVISA for the presence of pesticide in agricultural samples. The repeatability of PbOx/BDD electrode revealed a relative standard deviation of 4.6% and a reproducibility of 5.2%. A voltammetry study in different scan rates showed that carbaryl oxidation occurs irreversibly with diffusion control on the modified electrode surface. The SWV was also applied in artificially contaminated water samples from two urban creeks in São Carlos-SP city (Santa Maria do Leme and Gregorio creeks), both water samples were buffered (pH 6.0) and analyzed with the modified electrode. Aiming to compare the precision and sensitivity of SWV in those samples, analyzes were also performed using UV-Vis absorption at 280 nm and the corresponding analytical curves for carbaryl in BR buffer were obtained for a pesticide concentration between 5.0 x 10 -6 to 3.5 x 10-5 mol L-1. The LOD and limit of quantification (LOQ) were obtained as 0.9 x 10-6 mol L-1 and 7.44 x 10-6 mol L-1 for each creek water sample, respectively. In the UV-Vis measurements, the LOD was 2.6 x 10-5 mol L-1 and LOQ was 8.68 x 10-5 mol L-1 for both water samples, pointing out the excellence of the electroanalytical methodology to quantify carbaryl concentrations in those matrices. Potentiostatic electrolysis experiments at 3.0 V for 21 hours were also conducted for BDD and PbOx/BDD surfaces, with \"in situ\" UV-Vis detection, in BR buffer solutions. After the time period the carbaryl concentration diminished 14.9% of its initial value for the BDD electrode, while for the modified one the diminishing was of 39.3 %. In this way, the PbOx/BDD electrode has demonstrated its excellent catalytic performance, quite superior to that of the bare BDD one.

São apresentados os resultados do estudo das propriedades eletroquímicas do eletrodo de diamante dopado com boro (DDB) e do eletrodo de DDB modificado diretamente pelo método Sol-Gel com PbOx, para a determinação de carbaril. Mostrou-se que uma polarização anódica (3,0 V vs Ag/AgCl, 30 min) seguida de uma catódica (-3,0 V vs Ag/AgCl, 30 min), em meio ácido, são apropriadas para otimizar o desempenho catalítico da superfície. As imagens de AFM mostraram alterações topológicas significativas no eletrodo de PbOx/DDB, assim como as imagens digitais apresentaram uma provável mistura de óxidos de chumbo depositados na superfície do DDB. Caracterizações físicas do modificador PbOx foram realizadas com as técnicas de Microscopia Eletrônica de Varredura (MEV), Difratometria de raios-X (DRX) e Energia Dispersiva de raios-X (EDS). A MEV verificou os aspectos morfológicos da amostra e revelou que as partículas do modificador tinham formatos e tamanhos diferentes, distribuídas irregularmente. O difratograma de DRX confirmou a existência de uma mistura de óxidos de chumbo, produzida pelo método Sol-Gel e a análise por EDS mostrou a presença dos elementos chumbo e oxigênio, com proporção atômica de 43:57 (Pb:O). Para a determinação eletroanalítica do pesticida carbaril, empregou-se a técnica de Voltametria de Onda Quadrada (SWV) em tampão Britton-Robinson 4,0 x 10-2 mol L-1 (pH 6,0), com acréscimo de alíquotas obtidas de uma solução estoque de carbaril 1,0 x 10-2 mol L-1 em acetonitrila. Os parâmetros utilizados foram: frequência de 10 s-1, amplitude de pulso de 100 mV, incremento de potencial de 2 mV, potencial de pré-tratamento catódico de -1,1 V no tempo de 10 s. Curvas analíticas foram apresentadas para os dois eletrodos, mostrando que o eletrodo de DDB apresentou um limite de detecção (LD) de 2,0 µmol L-1. Já o eletrodo PbOx/DDB, um LD de 0,9 µmol L-1, baixo o suficiente em relação ao limite máximo de resíduo permitido pela ANVISA para a presença do pesticida em amostras de culturas agrícolas. A repetibilidade das medidas com o eletrodo de PbOx/DDB resultou em um desvio padrão relativo de 4,6% e a reprodutibilidade, em 5,2%. Em um estudo das velocidades de varredura, mostrou que a oxidação do carbaril é controlada por difusão e ocorre de maneira irreversível na superfície do eletrodo de PbOx/DDB. A técnica de SWV também foi aplicada em amostras reais de água artificialmente contaminadas de dois córregos da cidade de São Carlos - SP (Córrego Santa Maria do Leme e Córrego do Gregório), ambas tamponadas (pH 6,0), utilizando o eletrodo de PbOx/DDB. Com o objetivo de se comparar a precisão e a sensibilidade da SWV, foram obtidos espectros de UV-Vis em 280 nm e as correspondentes curvas analíticas para o carbaril em tampão BR e nas amostras dos córregos, num intervalo de concentrações de 5,0 x 10-6 a 3,5 x 10-5 mol L-1. O LD e o limite de quantificação (LQ) em solução tampão BR, calculados a partir dos experimentos de SWV, foram de 0,9 x 10-6 mol L-1 e 7,44 x 10-6 mol L-1, respectivamente. Para a técnica de UV-Vis, o LD foi de 2,6 x 10-5 mol L-1 e o LQ de 8,68 x 10-5 mol L-1, indicando que o método eletroanalítico é capaz de apresentar melhores resultados para a análise da oxidação de carbaril. Experimentos de eletrólises potenciostáticas a 3,0 V por 21 horas, acopladas a um detector de UV-Vis, mostraram que em solução tampão BR, o decaimento da concentração de carbaril para o eletrodo de DDB foi de 14,9%, ao passo que, para o eletrodo de PbOx/DDB, foi de 39,3%. Sendo assim, o eletrodo de PbOx/DDB mostrou melhores resultados, com uma excelente atividade catalítica, superior ao eletrodo de DDB sem modificação. / It is presented the results obtained in the study of electrochemical properties of the boron doped electrode (BDD) and of the BDD modified with PbOx by the Sol-Gel method, for the quantitative determination of carbaryl. It has been showed that an anodic polarization (3.0 V vs Ag/AgCl, 30 min) followed by a cathodic one (-3.0 V vs Ag/AgCl, 30 min), in acid medium, are appropriated to enhance the catalytic activity of the surface. The AFM images showed significant topologic alterations in the PbOx/DDB surface, moreover the digital imaging showed a mixture of lead oxides deposited in the DDB surface. Physical modifications of the PbOx modifier were carried out with Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), X-ray Diffraction Spectroscopy (XRD) and Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (EDS). SEM measurements illustrated the morphologic aspects of the samples surfaces and showed that the modifier coating had shape and size distinct from the bare BDD surface and that it was irregularly distributed throughout the surface. The XRD difractogram confirmed the existence of a mixture of lead oxides, provided by the Sol-Gel procedure and the EDS indicated the presence of lead and oxygen in a 43:57 atomic proportion (Pb:O). For the electroanalytical determination of carbaryl, the Square Wave Voltammetry (SWV) technique was employed in Britton-Robinson buffer solution 4.0 x 10-2 mol L-1 (pH 6.0), with the additions of aliquots from a 1.0 x 10-2 mol L-1 cabaryl in acetonitrile. The voltammetric parameters were optimized and used as frequency of 10 s-1, pulse amplitude of 100 mV, potential increment of 2 mV, cathodic pre-treatment potential of -1.1 V during 10 s. Analytical curves were obtained for both electrodes (BDD and BDD modified with PbOx) with the limit of detection limit (LOD) calculated for BDD of 2.0 µmol L-1. On the other hand, for PbOx modified electrode the calculated LOD was 0.9 µmol L-1, below the maximum residue limit allowed by ANVISA for the presence of pesticide in agricultural samples. The repeatability of PbOx/BDD electrode revealed a relative standard deviation of 4.6% and a reproducibility of 5.2%. A voltammetry study in different scan rates showed that carbaryl oxidation occurs irreversibly with diffusion control on the modified electrode surface. The SWV was also applied in artificially contaminated water samples from two urban creeks in São Carlos-SP city (Santa Maria do Leme and Gregorio creeks), both water samples were buffered (pH 6.0) and analyzed with the modified electrode. Aiming to compare the precision and sensitivity of SWV in those samples, analyzes were also performed using UV-Vis absorption at 280 nm and the corresponding analytical curves for carbaryl in BR buffer were obtained for a pesticide concentration between 5.0 x 10 -6 to 3.5 x 10-5 mol L-1. The LOD and limit of quantification (LOQ) were obtained as 0.9 x 10-6 mol L-1 and 7.44 x 10-6 mol L-1 for each creek water sample, respectively. In the UV-Vis measurements, the LOD was 2.6 x 10-5 mol L-1 and LOQ was 8.68 x 10-5 mol L-1 for both water samples, pointing out the excellence of the electroanalytical methodology to quantify carbaryl concentrations in those matrices. Potentiostatic electrolysis experiments at 3.0 V for 21 hours were also conducted for BDD and PbOx/BDD surfaces, with \"in situ\" UV-Vis detection, in BR buffer solutions. After the time period the carbaryl concentration diminished 14.9% of its initial value for the BDD electrode, while for the modified one the diminishing was of 39.3 %. In this way, the PbOx/BDD electrode has demonstrated its excellent catalytic performance, quite superior to that of the bare BDD one.

<p>In electrochemical oxidation treatment of wastewater, the electrode material is an important parameter in optimizing oxidative electrochemical processes, since the mechanism and products of several anodic reactions are known to depend on the anode material. The electrochemical oxidation of benzaldehyde, nitrobenzene and m-cresol on bare boron-doped diamond (BDD) electrode was investigated. Cytochrome c was then electrochemically immobilsed onto the functionalized BDD electrode by cyclic voltammetry. Oxidation and reduction reaction mechanism of each flavonoid was studied. There was one oxidation and reduction peaks for quercitin and catechin respectively, and two oxidation and two reduction peaks for rutin. The cytochrome c modified BDD electrode showed good sensitivity for all three flavonoids and low detection limits i.e. 0.42 to 11.24 M as evaluated at oxidation and reduction peaks, respectively.</p>

<p>In electrochemical oxidation treatment of wastewater, the electrode material is an important parameter in optimizing oxidative electrochemical processes, since the mechanism and products of several anodic reactions are known to depend on the anode material. The electrochemical oxidation of benzaldehyde, nitrobenzene and m-cresol on bare boron-doped diamond (BDD) electrode was investigated. Cytochrome c was then electrochemically immobilsed onto the functionalized BDD electrode by cyclic voltammetry. Oxidation and reduction reaction mechanism of each flavonoid was studied. There was one oxidation and reduction peaks for quercitin and catechin respectively, and two oxidation and two reduction peaks for rutin. The cytochrome c modified BDD electrode showed good sensitivity for all three flavonoids and low detection limits i.e. 0.42 to 11.24 M as evaluated at oxidation and reduction peaks, respectively.</p>

Magister Scientiae - MSc / In electrochemical oxidation treatment of wastewater, the electrode material is an important parameter in optimizing oxidative electrochemical processes, since the mechanism and products of several anodic reactions are known to depend on the anode material. The electrochemical oxidation of benzaldehyde, nitrobenzene and m-cresol on bare boron-doped diamond (BDD) electrode was investigated. Cytochrome c was then electrochemically immobilsed onto the functionalized BDD electrode by cyclic voltammetry. Oxidation and reduction reaction mechanism of each flavonoid was studied. There was one oxidation and reduction peaks for quercitin and catechin respectively, and two oxidation and two reduction peaks for rutin. The cytochrome c modified BDD electrode showed good sensitivity for all three flavonoids and low detection limits i.e. 0.42 to 11.24 M as evaluated at oxidation and reduction peaks, respectively. / South Africa

This dissertation describes electrochemical oxidation of Padan 95 SP on Boron-doped diamond (BDD) electrode mainly by •OH radicals (which was measured by indirect method, i.e: the formation of 2-Hydroxylterephthalic acid (2-HTA)), Electro-Fenton and the combination with adsorption technology for increasing total organic carbon (TOC) removal efficiency. In this study, the formation of 2-HTA on BDD electrode via the reaction between terephthalic acid (TA) and •OH as a method to quantify hydroxyl radical formation was investigated. The degradation of Cartap in Padan 95SP (95 % Cartap) on BDD was investigated. Operating parameters such as applied current density, types of electrolyte and initial concentration of Padan 95SP were varied in order to determine their effect on the degradation efficiency of Cartap. The concentration of Cartap was determined by UV-Vis spectroscopy according to 5,5-Dithiobis-(2-nitrobenzoic acid) (DTNB) procedure. High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) and Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) were used to characterize the commercial Padan 95SP and the formation of by-products. The optimal conditions for Cartap degradation by electrochemical process have been established: concentration of electrolyte: 0.05 M Na2SO4, initial concentration of Padan 95SP: 300 mg·L-1, pH = 3, current density: j = 20 mA·cm-2. At this condition, Cartap decreases to 41 %, TOC decay reaches 8 %. To increase TOC decay at higher Padan 95 SP concentration in aqueous solution, the combination technique of electrochemical process with other techniques was proposed, e.g.: Electro-Fenton technique, pre-oxidizing by NaOCl or the Electro-Adsorption combination. In the Electro-Fenton technique, we investigated the influence of factors such as the presence of NaOCl in pretreatment of process, affects of H2O2 concentration, Fe2+ dosage, co-catalysts metals ion and pH. The efficiency shows approximately 80 % of TOC removed at 700 mg·L-1 Padan 95 SP. The combination of electrochemical with adsorption method shows the efficient removals of TOC and Padan 95SP (95 % Cartap) based on reagents oxidation in electrochemical process and adsorption of granular activated carbon (GAC), respectively. The influence of factors such as supporting electrolytes, flow rate, bed height, recycling number as well as initial concentration were investigated in order to determine their effects on TOC removal. The efficiency of this combination shows approximately 75 % of TOC and more than 90 % of Cartap removed at 700 mg·L-1 Padan 95 SP. Fourier Transform Infrared (FT-IR) and (Brunauer–Emmett–Teller) BET surface analysis were applied to investigate GAC before and after usage. The results have shown that the application of electrochemical technique with other methods can be the potential option for treatment of wastewater containing Padan 95 SP. / Diese Dissertation befasst sich mit der Reduktion des gesamten organischen Kohlenstoffs (TOC) aus wässriger Lösung, die Padan 95 SP enthält. Als Methoden zur Minimierung von TOC wurden die elektrochemische Oxidation von Padan 95 SP auf Bor-dotierter Diamant (BDD) Elektroden durch •OH Radikale, Elektro-Fenton und die Kombination mit Adsorptionstechnologien verwendet. Die •OH Radikale wurden dabei durch indirekte Methoden, z. B. die Bildung von 2-HTA gemessen. Zur Quantifizierung der Hydroxylradikalbildung wurde in dieser Studie die Bildung von 2-Hydroxylterephthalsäure (2-HTA) an BDD-Elektroden über die Reaktion zwischen Terephthalsäure (TA) und •OH untersucht. Weiterhin befasst sich die Arbeit mit dem Abbau von Cartap in Padan 95SP (95% Cartap) auf BDD über die Reaktion zwischen Cartap und Hydroxylradikalen. Betriebsparameter wie die angewandte Stromdichte, die Elektrolytarten und die Anfangskonzentration von Padan 95SP wurden variiert, um ihre Wirkung auf die Abbaueffizienz von Cartap zu bestimmen. Die Konzentration von Cartap wurde mittels UV-Vis-Spektroskopie mit dem 5,5-Dithiobis-(2-Nitrobenzoesäure) (DTNB) Verfahren bestimmt. Hochleistungs-Flüssigkeitschromatographie (HPLC) und Gaschromatographie/Massenspektrometrie (GC-MS) wurden verwendet, um das kommerziell erhältliche Padan 95SP und die Bildung von Nebenprodukten beim Abbau von Cartap zu charakterisieren. Die optimalen Bedingungen für die Cartap-Degradation durch den elektrochemischen Prozess wurden festgelegt: Konzentration des Elektrolyten: 0.05 M Na2SO4, Padan 95SP Anfangskonzentration: 300 mg·L-1, pH = 3, Stromdichte: j = 20 mA·cm-2. Unter diesen Bedingungen sinkt Cartap auf 41% und der TOC erreicht 8 % des jeweiligen Ausgangswertes. Um den TOC-Zerfall bei höher Padan 95 SP Konzentration in Wasser zu erhöhen, wurde die Kombination des elektrochemischen Prozesses mit anderen Techniken vorgeschlagen, z.B.: Elektro-Fenton-Technik, Oxidation mit NaOCl, oder die Kombination des elektrochemischen Prozesses mit einem Adsorptionsprozess. Bei der Elektro-Fenton-Technik wurde der Einfluss von Faktoren wieder Anwesenheit von NaOCl in der Prozessvorbehandlung, Auswirkungen der H2O2-Konzentration, Fe2+-Dosierung, Metallionen als Cokatalysatoren und der pH-Wert der Lösung untersucht, um die Wirkung auf die Abbau-Effizienz für Cartap zu bestimmen. Es konnten mit dieser Methode rund 80 % TOC, ausgehend von 700 mg·L-1Padan 95SP, entfernt werden. Die Kombination des elektrochemischen Prozesses mit einer Adsorptionsmethode ermöglicht eine effiziente Entfernung von TOC und Padan 95SP (95% Cartap). Dies basiert auf der Oxidation und anschließender Adsorption auf granularer Aktivkohle (GAC). Der Einfluss von Faktoren wie Leitelektrolyten, Flussrate, Betthöhe, Recyclingzahl sowie die Anfangskonzentration von Padan 95 SP wurde untersucht, um deren Auswirkungen auf die TOC Entfernung zu bestimmen. Durch die Kombination konnten so 75% desTOC und mehr als 90% Cartap bei 700 mg·L-1Padan 95 SP entfernt werden. Fourier-Transformations-Infrarot (FT-IR) und BET-Oberflächenanalyse wurden angewendet, um GAC vor und nach der Verwendung zu untersuchen. Die Ergebnisse haben gezeigt, dass die Kombination des elektrochemischen Prozesses mit anderen Methoden eine potentielle Option für die Behandlung von Abwasser, das Padan 95 SP enthält, sein kann.