This PhD project embarks on a journey to investigate how novice designers behave during the idea generation stage. It is the first stage when a designer becomes aware of design briefs or requirements. Key results are presented briefly. In general the study confirms that sketching provides better assistance in comparison to mental imagery. These results are unsurprising, however in three out of six phenomena were supported in mental imagery sessions as effectively as in sketching sessions. This study also suggests differences between interplays of mind-body environment in described sketching and mental imagery sessions. Common patterns and operational design actions in specific design intentions and sub-intentions are presented. In addition, this study suggests similarities between architecture and product design in terms of idea generation processes. The results challenge previous studies by making contributions to the observed research gap: the role of internal and external representations in novice designers with fewer previously-generated and ready-to-be-deployed solutions; and relative advantages between design environments (with and without externalisations). This study adds knowledge in the design cognition and process field through the view of designing as embodied experience. The scope of this PhD is the design ideation stage and is limited to the design process, leaving aside design outcomes. To explore this, three design conditions were investigated: 1) sketching condition, when designers were allowed to sketch on provided special paper for a pen-and-paper based smartpen for 45 minutes, 2) mental imagery condition, when designers were blindfolded for 35 minutes whilst generating ideas and were able to externalise final proposals on the special paper for the last 10 minutes, and 3) the placebo condition for the control group participants. The rationale for this research is laid out as follows. Firstly, the use of external representations and internal representations specifically in design processes is always assumed, and is not thoroughly understood. Secondly, identified challenges in terms of computational support in automation and augmentation of design actions posited the need to have a better understanding on how tacit qualitative knowledge is manipulated. These two notions provided the impetus for this research. The aim of this study is to provide empirical evidence of how internal and external representations are intertwined. A comparative study of the processes between sketching and mental imagery design conditions is examined in research question 1. This study stands out in terms of comparison to previous empirical studies since it also investigates the interplaying roles between internal and external processes, in research question 2. Observations of differences and similarities between architecture and product design disciplines shape exploration of research question 3. Theoretical lenses such as creative cognition and embodied cognition are considered as useful frameworks within which to describe the creative processes. With regard to method; a variant of experimental research- a quasi-experiment method- was used. In total there were 12 participants contributing to 24 design sessions, each session lasting 45 minutes. Verbal data was extracted, segmented and encoded from think-aloud sessions. Utterances were analysed with the help of a newly devised coding scheme elaborating processes distributed between mind, body and environment. An open access online program was developed by the researcher to aid data visualisations, producing three different types of graph and basic statistics. Contributions are made to design pedagogy by highlighting the introduction of mental imagery as an effective cognitive tool as early as introducing sketches. In terms of design practice, it highlights mental imagery as an alternative quick idea generation cognitive tool and the possibility to extend the study into a real life design setting in practice. In design research, apart from the real life design setting as a future agenda, this project also contributes to understanding the basic mechanisms of internal and external processes to suggest computational support, the possibility to expand investigations to other types of design strategies and tools (physical model making, digital models, digital sketching, augmented reality or virtual reality headsets), and contributes to the embodied creativity subject on viewing creativity using the embodied cognition lens. The main limitations of the study are: the small number of design sessions, scarcity of previous empirical design studies addressing situatedness of designers, and the laboratory based experiments which limit explorations to the experiment room. Overall, this study provides ground work for studies related to the internal and external processes of designers. Also, it highlights the importance of examining feedback loops between these processes, a view to which traditional cognitive science does not ascribe. The key of the embodied cognition is the interaction between mind-body-environment and it is time that design studies consider design cognition beyond the designers' mind.

Humans are remarkable for the level of altruistic and prosocial behaviour they display. This has been an enduring puzzle to social scientists who have proposed a range of theories to try to account for human's propensity to act altruistically. This thesis adds to this tradition by exploring a new altruistic preference, known as, reluctant altruism. Reluctant altruists are those who do not trust others to help and display a positive response to high free riding contexts. Chapter one reviews the main influential theories that seek to explain altruistic behaviour and introduces the theory of reluctant altruism. Chapters two to five empirically tests core characteristics of reluctant altruism within a university population. Chapter two attempts to identify whether reluctant altruists choose to support the least supported charity and if observable contexts enhance reluctant altruist's prosocial behaviour. Chapter two shows a clear preference for the least supported charity which is not explained by reluctant altruism or levels of observability. Chapter three tests whether reluctant altruism predicts less trusting helping behaviour in a modified trust game and identifies if reluctant altruists donate more under observable conditions with a larger sample than chapter two. The results show a clear preference for the least supported charity but find no evidence for reluctant altruists displaying less trusting helping behaviour or reluctant altruists donating more in observable contexts. Chapter four tests if reluctant altruists make charitable donations to causes suffering from varying levels of free riding. The findings again show a preference for donating to the least supported charity and displays mixed evidence for reluctant altruist's donating under high levels of free riding. Chapter five explores reluctant altruist's emotional responses pre and post charitable donations. The results indicate that reluctant altruists are more negative pre-donation and do not become happier post donation as might be expected by Negative State Relief theory. Chapter 6, utilises the underdog preference which is a preference to support those at a relative disadvantage to explain the consistent finding over chapters two to four that the least supported charity receives more donations. Chapter seven presents a systematic review and meta-analysis of the effect the observability has on prosocial behaviour. The main finding is the observability has a small positive effect on prosocial behaviour. Finally, in the discussion, I review the mixed findings surrounding reluctant altruism and suggest future avenues of research that might help further clarify reluctant altruism.

Background: Within the recovery literature there has been a drive towards obtaining service users' conceptualisations of recovery as opposed to medicalised conceptualisations, in order to inform service provision. The focus remains on community populations who have described recovery from psychosis as a journey involving rebuilding the self, finding hope, and reclaiming a purpose in life. There is limited literature conceptualising recovery from psychosis for those accessing MHI services. Aims: To gain a deeper understanding of MHIs' lived experiences of recovery from psychosis and to conceptualise recovery from psychosis through MHIs' descriptions. Methodology: In-depth semi-structured interviews were conducted with MHIs and analysed via interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA). Results: Five superordinate themes and accompanying subordinate themes emerged. The superordinate themes developed were: "My future is just being ripped out in front of me": Living with psychosis is a struggle; "Would you want to be in here?": Traumatic experience of being in hospital; "I know roughly why I got ill anyway and what caused this": A journey towards reaching an understanding; Recovery/Rehabilitation/Recuperation: A process of evolution; and "You need all the help you can get": Facilitators of Recovery. Living with psychosis is a struggle reflects the struggles experienced which appeared to hinder recovery. The experience of hospitalisation was described as traumatic and was seen by many as preventing recovery. Recovery was described as an evolutionary process involving reaching an understanding about individual experiences. Facilitators of recovery were identified. Conclusions: This study highlighted that for the participants interviewed, MHI settings are not settings where everyone can be in recovery or approaching recovery however the concept of recovery is viewed. For some participants recovery appeared to be an 'empty signifier' that is meaningless and is a word used by services that does not necessarily correspond with some of their experiences of MHI settings.

Spatial cognition is a multi-faceted domain that requires the support of a complex brain network. Moving beyond the role of the medial temporal lobe in memory, a growing body of literature suggested that the extended hippocampal network is critically involved in scene processing and in the formation of egocentric and allocentric references. Applying a combination of MRI techniques, the main goal of this thesis was to provide evidence about the specific contribution of the fornix and the hippocampus to different spatial skills. Different groups of healthy individuals were recruited for each study and underwent MRI scans. For each participant, diffusion MRI metrics of the fornix (fractional anisotropy, FA, and mean diffusivity, MD) were extracted. These were then correlated across subjects with the behavioural performance on spatial tasks. Specifically, Chapters III and IV aimed to investigate the involvement of the fornix in spatial orientation and spatial learning. The results showed significant correlations with the performance on the Spatial Orientation task (SOT) and with the curve learning obtained from the Virtual Reality Maze task (VRMt) suggesting a critical role of this white-matter tract in orientation and navigation. An fMRI repetition suppression paradigm was adopted in Chapter V to study the role of the HC in scene perception and the contribution of the fornix in viewpoint processing. However, the weak BOLD activity registered in the hippocampus and the lack of significant results suggested that further work is required to clarify the spatial representation formed by this area.

Educational legislation in the UK has promoted the use of Person Centred Planning to gain the views of young people and involve them in making decisions about their provision (DFE, 2014; Welsh Government, 2015). However, there is a gap between the legislation and current practice in education (Holtom & Lloyd-Jones, 2014; Norwich & Eaton, 2015). Previous research has found young people are not meaningfully engaged in making decisions, particularly young people with additional learning needs (Lundy, 2007; Norwich & Eaton, 2015). However, the extent to which Person Centred Planning facilitates the engagement of young people in decision making has not yet been explored and the evidence base is limited (Ratti et al, 2016). This research paper aimed to explore participant’s perceptions of Person Centred Planning as a tool to engage young people. Semi- Structured Interviews were used to explore the experiences of young people, parents, school staff and Educational Psychologists in relation to Person Centred Planning meetings, focusing specifically on the engagement of young people in the process. A thematic analysis of the whole data set found four common themes across the data, these were ‘power’, ‘familiarity’, ‘presence of young person’ and ‘creativity and adaptation’, however the experiences of each participant group varied. Young people’s engagement in decision-making processes was limited, due to a lack of familiarity with the approach and established power hierarchies. The findings also highlighted the difficulty of applying one approach to a heterogeneous group such as young people with additional learning needs.

The application of Behaviour Analysis as an early intervention for children with Autistic Spectrum Condition is increasing within the United Kingdom (Lambert, 2013). Although there is evidence to suggest that Educational Psychologists (EPs) are involved in some capacity with Early Intensive Behavioural Therapy (EIBI), there is a lack of research to inform the profession. Semi-structured interviews were held with four parents who have a child receiving EIBI and two EPs with experience of EIBI. The questions asked were related to the role of the EP within EIBI. The data was analysed using Thematic Analysis as described by Braun and Clarke (2006). The eleven themes identified portrayed the difficult relationship between the Local Authority Services and parents. Recommendations are made to the role of the EP as to how to work effectively and inclusively with cases involving EIBI.

This thesis focusses on the topic vicarious post-traumatic growth (VPTG). The thesis has been written in the format of four papers: a systematic review, two empirical papers and a critical reflection paper. Paper one presents a systematic review of quantitative studies exploring VPTG in health professionals. Eighteen studies were identified that fulfilled the reviews inclusion criteria. A narrative synthesis was completed. Results indicated an array of variables have been explored in relation to VPTG. The reviews clinical implications, recommendations of future research and limitations of the review are considered. The first empirical paper (2a) presents a Q-Methodology study aimed to explore the views of VPTG in staff members working within a specialist cancer centre. A two-factor solution evolved from the Q-sort analysis, factor 1 - 'enriching and exposing to the transience of life.', factor 2 - 'connection neighbouring disconnection'. Recommendations for future research, as well as, clinical implications are discussed. The second empirical paper (2b) presents a quantitative study of VPTG in staff members working within a specialist cancer centre. 40 staff members completed an adapted version of the Post-Traumatic Growth Inventory (PTGI) and professionals' quality of life (ProQOL) scale. Results indicated an array of relationships between VPTG, ProQOL and staff members demographics. Clinical implications and recommendations for future research are considered. Paper three presents a critical reflection on the process of completing this thesis. Unlike the other papers, this paper is not intended for publication. Personal and professional development reflections are offered. A dissemination of research results is also shared.

Consultation and coaching are two approaches being used by Educational Psychologists (EPs) as part of an approach to service delivery for clients. Both approaches have been evaluated as helpful in facilitating positive change for clients. Previous literature has explored the processes and approaches used in coaching and consultation separately, with only very limited literature exploring these within the context of educational psychology practice (EPP). This qualitative study explored EPs’ perceptions of the processes and approaches involved in coaching and consultation, as well as what was actually happening in coaching and consultation sessions. Thirteen participants were involved in the research with 9 semi-structured interviews conducted using a sample of 5 consulting EPs and 4 coaching EPs, as well as recordings of 1 coaching and 1 consultation session. Transcripts of the data were analysed through the 6-stage process of thematic analysis. The findings suggest there are clear links between espoused theory and theory in practice in relation to EPs’ perceptions of coaching and consultation and what is actually happening in conversations. There are a number of similarities between coaching and consultation conversations in EPP, where the psychological approaches used are very similar. Findings suggest that some of the processes between the two approaches are different, enough to warrant coaching as an approach which can exist as its own entity within the profession.

This thesis investigated two concepts which have shown promise in accounting for psychological adaptation to spinal cord injury: sense of coherence and posttraumatic growth. Paper one describes a systematic review which investigated the relationships between sense of coherence and physical and mental health outcomes in spinal cord injured individuals. Thirteen studies met criteria for the review. Their findings are summarised and critically appraised. Paper two describes an investigation into predictors of posttraumatic growth following spinal cord injury. Relevant predictors were drawn from theoretical models of posttraumatic growth and from the literature pertaining to psychological adaptation to spinal cord injury. The findings of this study suggest that deliberate rumination, appraisals of disability, social support and core belief disruption help to account for the experience of posttraumatic growth following spinal cord injury. Paper three provides a critical review of this project. The rationale for many of the decisions made is provided, alongside a contextualisation of the findings within their respective theoretical and empirical frameworks. Recommendations for clinical practice and service development are drawn from the studies. Future directions for research which arise from the current project are also discussed.

This research explored the role of reflective practice (RP) for educational psychologists (EPs). Reflective practice was defined as the process of learning through and from experiences towards gaining new insights of self and/or practice (Boud, Keogh & Walker, 1985). The regulatory body (Health & Care Professions Council (HCPC)) has mandated that practitioner psychologists ‘be able to reflect and review practice’ (HCPC, Standards of Proficiency, 2015, 11.1, p12). Furthermore, RP is identified as central to the British Psychological Society (BPS) compulsory policy on Continuing Professional Development (CPD) (BPS, 2006). However, within the professional guidelines for EPs (BPS, Division of Education and Child Psychology (DECP), 2002) RP is perhaps limited. Nine EPs completed semi-structured interviews exploring the role of reflective practice and a grounded theory methodology (GT) (Glaser & Strauss, 1967) was applied. Five main themes and twenty-one sub-themes were identified. The created grounded theory (GT) proposes that RP supports EP motivation (McLean, 2003, 2009) and self-efficacy (Bandura, 1977, 1994). Factors at the individual, local authority (LA) and governing body levels that inhibited or promoted RP were identified. Future development of RP for EPs will require further specific consideration and commitment from all those involved in the profession.