Whilst young caregiving in Africa is not a new phenomenon, research exploring the circumstances and well-being of young carers in Africa is recent and remains scarce. However, similar to studies about orphaned children, the literature on young carers has a tendency to represent them as vulnerable and passive victims at risk of poor mental health, downplaying structural problems such as poverty and undermining the active participation of children and community members in building resilience. This thesis contributes to an already emerging critical trend that seeks to counterbalance this narrow focus by exploring how children, through an interaction with their social environment, cope with difficult circumstances. In doing so, the thesis addresses conceptual gaps in the coping literature and develops, through an iterative process, a social psychology of coping. This thesis draws on a participatory action research project that involved 48 children and 16 adults from two rural communities in the Bondo district of Kenya. Data were collected through multiple methods (daily diagrams, historical profiles, community mapping, photovoice, draw-and-write exercises, essay writing, individual interviews and group discussions) over a two-year period. The thesis provides an example of how research can be conducted through an intervention and in partnership with an NGO, illustrating how socio-ethical research can be conducted in a poor rural African setting. A thematic content analysis reveals the complex nature of caregiving and brings forward new empirical findings of young carers, including the continuity of their caregiving experiences, socio-cultural influences on caregiving as well as the kind of care they provide. The analysis also reveals some of the social and psychological coping strategies that the children draw upon. These include the children�s ability to mobilise social support, engage in income-generating activities and build positive identities based around a social recognition of their responsibilities. As a result of these empirical accounts, the thesis concludes that the ability of a child to cope is shaped by 1) the on-going negotiation between individual and community which shapes a person�s identity and access to local support networks and resources to tackle adversity, 2) the quality of the community they live in and its ability to share resources and 3) the children�s different abilities to negotiate community support. This social psychological conceptualisation of coping opens up new levels of analysis for research and intervention, which take account of the need to identify and bolster the social psychological resources evident within communities that can facilitate or hinder support. To strengthen the resilience and coping of young carers and their communities, the thesis points towards the viability of community-based capital cash transfer programmes and gives detail to the social psychological resources that can facilitate or hinder the building of orphan competent communities.

Gender-based harmful traditional practices (HTP) are prevalent in many countries across the world and have a severely negative impact on the physical and psychological health of women and girls. This thesis informs understanding of the factors that both perpetuate and inhibit resistance to HTPs. It further provides understanding of the psychological impact of female genital mutilation (FGM) informing both clinical and policy action. Chapter one is a critical review of both quantitative and qualitative literature exploring factors that perpetuate and facilitate resistance to HTPs. Following both database and manual searches, 21 studies were included and reviewed. Women who had experienced or carried out harmful traditional practices of son preference, FGM or child marriage, relate educational status, residential location, economic status, and family history of practising FGM as sociological facets that perpetuate HTPs. Negative health implications and female autonomy are considered factors that facilitated resistance to HTPs, and religion, tradition and patriarchy serve as control mechanisms that inhibit resistance to HTPs. Chapter two is a qualitative research study that explores women survivors’ experiences of FGM and the resultant psychological impact. The development of a theoretical model shows women related lack of knowledge, female identity, religion, culture, role of men, and deception as reasons for the practice of FGM. Experiencing FGM impacted on the physical, identity, emotional, and relational aspects of women’s lives. All of these factors, in addition to women’s resilience, were influenced by key stages of their life including menstruation, sexual intimacy, and having a child, as well as by fear and unmet needs due to insufficient service provision. Chapter three is a reflective account, exploring the challenges encountered throughout the research process, as well as reflecting on issues of counter-transference between the researcher and the participants, their impact, and their management.

Chapter one examines literature on the prevalence and effects of gender-based violence during war on women and men. Research indicates that physical, psychological and socio-cultural consequences of gender-based and sexual violence are fundamentally linked and have a differential impact on men and women's identities. Despite research demonstrating psychological symptoms of post traumatic stress as a result of these experiences, it is argued that applying a western medical model to survivors from non-western countries may not be the most comprehensive way of understanding their experiences. A model that accounts for the cultural context, gendered differences and identity impact is proposed. Very few studies reviewed addressed resilience and coping in survivors of gender based violence indicating a gap in the psychological literature. Chapter two explores African women's experiences of violence during conflict and seeks to identify its impact on mental health. It also provides an understanding of the roles of resilience, coping and identity in African refugee women. Results identified a complex relationship between resilience, access to rights and support and identity in African refugees living in the United Kingdom. It also recognised cultural and societal influences in Africa and experiences in the UK as influential factors. Results from the study support the move toward an holistic model of understanding refugee women's experiences. The study also reveals the importance of support services assisting women to utilise a resilience framework to assist rebuilding their identities in order to maintain resilience. Chapter three provides personal reflections on the research journey and process. Methodological and ethical issues related to conducting research with refugees are discussed. The paper also draws on emerging themes from a reflective journal, which highlights the challenges and positive experiences of the researcher whilst volunteering for a local refugee centre. It also makes suggestions about further considerations of these issues by Clinical Psychologists within research supervision processes.