This ethnographic study illuminates the connections between race, class, and academic engagement and the role that schools and educators exert in shaping them. The critical events portrayed demonstrate the power of social stereotyping and racism in relationship to academic engagement and the aspirations of culturally diverse high school students. At the same time, the study shows that human relationships are at the heart of schooling, and that the power relations of the broader society are often enacted in the interactions that occur between students and teachers in the classroom. Two Latino high school students, one foreign born and one U.S. born, shared candidly their points of view and perceptions about students' attrition and academic disengagement. Their perspectives were later compared to the views of thirty-three educators employed at the same urban educational institutions these students attended. A survey of these educators expanded our understanding of the forces that influence teachers' views of Latino students and their communities. The present study also examined Ogbu's influential theory of differential school success, and the connections between opposition, identity, and academic engagement. However, this study corroborated Jim Cummins' recent work, suggesting that students' behavior and motivation is influenced not only from historically or politically derived structures, but most importantly from day-to-day interactions with members of the institutional setting. During the study, the students spoke at length about school practices and policies that serve to separate students along ethnic and class lines, and that favor certain dominant ideologies over others. Issues of selective enforcement of strict disciplinary school rules, marginalization of Latino students in the curriculum, and a deteriorated school climate characterized by the absence of a true "community" among the diverse ethnic groups represented in the schools were some of the issues that emerged. The study concluded with a summary of the main recommendations for change and reform based on suggestions of the students themselves. These recommendations emanate from the sincere and genuine voices of Latino youth, representing much needed insights if we are to reverse the ongoing pattern of failure among Latino populations.

This study examines the role of community-based, minority language resources in dual language schooling. A rapidly growing form of bilingual education, dual language programs involve the co-instruction of children from language majority and language minority backgrounds via the languages of both groups. In contrast to studies of English language development, this study is concerned with Spanish language development by children from English-speaking and Spanish-speaking homes. Using a case study design, the study draws on theoretical frameworks from the fields of language planning, language revitalization, and funds of knowledge to propose that dual language programs may support minority language acquisition by incorporating local language resources--linguistic funds of knowledge--to counter the hegemony of English that undermines additive bilingual efforts in many schools. By showing how historical conditions associated with English-only schooling and punitive approaches to use of Spanish in barrio schools and the legacy of local bilingual education pioneers have contributed to the development of a dual language program, it demonstrates the continued importance of past practices in present dual language planning. The study triangulates ethnographic data from participant observation in classrooms, literacy instruction, and other school domains, teacher, parent, and community interviews, and document and archival analysis. These data, along with findings of changing patterns of language dominance in the case study community, indicate that the minority language resources most immediately available--in the form of fluent bilingual elders and recent immigrants from Mexico--are less likely to be incorporated into planned curriculum than the knowledge and experiences of language majority parents. This pattern is a consequence of the social distance between educators and barrio families, the ambivalence of Mexican American parents and school staff toward the use of non-standard varieties of Spanish in schooling, and the need for greater awareness of language shift. Based on these findings, the study proposes that dual language programs move beyond efforts to increase use of the minority language as language of instruction. Instead, the study suggests, programs should consider practices that tap the linguistic funds of knowledge residing in the vital language minority communities in which schools are embedded.

El presente estudio examina el papel de la escuela en el mantenimiento de la lengua y la cultura Arhuaco. Un creciente interes en los procesos de educacion indigena ha llevado a la comunidad Ika a replantear la educacion impartida desde el Estado para hacer una aproximacion al diseno de una educacion propia. Esto ha conllevado un analisis profundo por parte de las autoridades indigenas y los maestros sobre nuevos procesos educativos que contribuyan a la preservacion de la cultura autoctona. Utilizando un diseno etnografico, este estudio tomo como orientacion teorica analisis sobre planificacion linguistica, reproduccion cultural y economica a traves de la escuela y revitalizacion cultural y linguistica. Partiendo de una descripcion historica sobre el contacto con la cultura europea que propicio el desplazamiento cultural en las comunidades indigenas de la Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, esta investigacion demuestra la importancia de las luchas lideradas por los Arhuacos con las cuales se logro la expulsion de la mision Capuchina, para tomar control sobre sus escuelas. Posterior a esto se inicia el diseno de una educacion mas acorde con la cultura que toma como parte fundamental la lengua Ika. Este estudio articula datos etnograficos obtenidos mediante observacion participante en la escuela, las familias y las actividades comunitarias con la revision de documentos y archivos historicos que los indigenas poseen sobre sus procesos de resistencia. Los datos analizados demuestran que el Ika es una lengua cuya vitalidad se debe no solo a la transmision de esta en los ambitos familiar y comunitario, sino tambien a los procesos de revitalizacion linguistica y cultural que los indigenas vienen promoviendo para tratar de contener los procesos de aculturacion occidental que todavia se presentan con fuerza dentro del espacio escolar. Basado en los anteriores hallazgos este estudio propone el diseno de un programa de educacion bilingue dentro de la escuela que contribuya tanto al mantenimiento de la lengua Ika como al desarrollo de competencias en espanol por parte de los ninos. Igualmente recomienda un mayor acercamiento entre comunidad y escuela de tal manera que incremente la participacion comunitaria en el fortalecimiento y apropiacion del espacio escolar.

The syntax of intrasentential codeswitching has been the main focus of research on codeswitching in the last two decades, and several constraints on its occurrence have been proposed. Belazi et al.'s (1994) Functional Head Constraint is one of the most recent among these constraints. It states that codeswitching is not allowed between functional heads and their complements. This study tests the predictions of this constraint, as well as Poplack's (1980) Equivalence Constraint, using Saudi Arabic-English codeswitching data from ten graduate students studying at U.S. universities. A total of ten hours of naturalistic telephone conversational data was tape-recorded, and transcribed for analysis. Selected portions of the conversations containing fairly frequent codeswitching are included in an appendix, which may be a source for further research. Codeswitches were classified according to the category of syntactic unit in which they occurred, and their frequency was tabulated. Illustrative examples of each category are given, and the applicability of major proposed constraints to the examples is discussed, with particular attention to the Functional Head Constraint. Analysis shows that Saudi Arabic-English codeswitching poses an apparent challenge to the Functional Head Constraint, as the database contains frequent counterexamples, consisting primarily of a switch between the bound Arabic definite article el- and an English Noun or modifier + Noun. Analyzed in terms of Chomsky's (1995) Minimalist Program, this switch is seen as occurring between the head of the DP and its complement, with the /l/ of the Arabic head assimilating to the first [+ Coronal] consonant of the English word, following regular phonological rules. It is proposed that the definite article has weak features, and does not have to check its language feature, so that it does not block codeswitching. The Functional Head Constraint can thus be maintained if it is restricted to apply to heads with strong features, such as demonstratives, which block codeswitching. However, the phenomenon remains a clear violation of the Free Morpheme Constraint (Poplack 1980).

This investigation examined the beliefs and practices of four Latina bilingual educators. The participants were part of a federal grant program to allow personnel from local school districts to earn a bachelor's degree in bilingual education. The researcher analyzed the language ideologies that were articulated and practiced by the participants as they worked with English language learners in local elementary schools. In particular, this investigation addressed the participants' understanding of how to use native language instruction (in this case, Spanish) in bilingual education to improve writing and other aspects of academic success in the second language (in this case, English). Using questionnaire data, interviews, and observations, the researcher concluded that the way the participants used Spanish in instruction depended significantly on their own language learning ideologies and on the assimilationist context of the larger society.

Cross cultural communication is difficult because of the different cultural parameters. The cultural experiences define your perspective. Behavior in culture, moreover, is dependent on many factors as historical, sociological and psychological experiences. These experiences further define your worldview and determine your reactions.

The University of Arizona's College of Agriculture and Life Sciences has a long history of serving the agricultural community throughout the state. Located within Arizona's boundaries are twenty-one Indian reservations whose agriculture and natural resources are of significant import to tribal communities culturally, spiritually, and economically. Declining enrollment of Native American students has prompted this study of the perceptions of faculty regarding agricultural and natural resource issues on the Navajo and Hopi reservations. Responses show a disturbing lack of awareness regarding issues important to the two reservations. There are cultural differences between the University and the tribes that are believed to have an influence on recruitment and retention rates. Thus, heightening the awareness of faculty to agricultural and natural resource concerns of the Navajo and Hopi peoples could reverse the downward trend of recruitment and retention rates of Native American students.

This study examined the practice and relevance of having a team of two teachers, one Deaf and one hearing, team teaching Deaf students in a coenrolled classroom. Data were collected to answer the research questions by interviewing five teachers and their supervisor. Six successful teams were asked about their experience team teaching, and their perception of the effectiveness of this approach. Informants' responses were videotaped, transcribed and analysed. From interview data, four main categories were identified: (a) Philosophy of Education, (b) perception of roles, (c) benefits of team teaching, and (c) current practice. Data for each category is presented separately including subcategories, and illustrated with quotes from informants. Results of this research encourages professionals to work towards collaborative models that positively impact Deaf students' education. There is sufficient evidence to realise that there is an imperative need for Deaf adults to be involved in the educational process of children and young adults who are Deaf.

This thesis discusses language use by sixth grade students in the English-German bilingual program in Winnipeg, Manitoba. This bilingual program started out as a heritage language program in the early 1980s, and continues to be well attended. This project looked at the way in which students used both English and German with a fluently bilingual interviewer in an out-of-classroom setting. The study started with the following research questions: 1. How do children currently being educated in the English-German bilingual program in Winnipeg, Manitoba use German (the second language or L2) and English in out-of-classroom contexts? 2. What kind of borrowing tendencies do sixth grade students share? 3. What do these tendencies tell us about children’s bilingual language use and their communication strategies? It is often assumed that use of L1 when speaking L2 is a sign of laziness or a sign of low language proficiency. However, based on a thorough linguistic analysis of two interviews as case studies, it became clear that borrowing is used for far more diverse purposes than the simple filling of lexical gaps. After an examination that included cultural vs. core borrowing, structural transference, and discourse-related borrowing, the data suggests that depending on the proficiency of the speaker, borrowing is an extremely important communication tool that not only allows the speaker to become more proficient in their L2, but also a more highly developed bilingual.

<p> The purpose of this non-experimental quantitative study was to explore the practices of speech-language pathologists in conducting bilingual assessments with interpreters. Data were obtained regarding the assessment tools and practices used by speech-language pathologists, the frequency with which they work with interpreters, and the procedures they employ prior to, during, and at the conclusion of assessments of English language learners (ELLs). Also explored were the skills and proficiencies that speech-language pathologists believe interpreters need in order to be effective in interpreting for assessments. </p><p> Data for the study were obtained from surveys completed by a sample of speech-language pathologists working in a large, diverse public school district in the mid-Atlantic region. The survey consisted of rating scales, forced choice questions, and open ended questions. Results were reported via descriptive statistics and through description of participants' responses to open-ended questions. </p><p> Results of the study indicated that the participants engaged in best practices in bilingual assessment as defined by the American Speech-Language Hearing Association (2004a, 1999) to a greater extent than has been previously reported in the literature. However, considerable variation existed among participants regarding adherence to best practices, including the decision regarding whether or not to work with an interpreter when assessing ELLs. Study results indicated that participants continue to rely heavily on the use of formal measures standardized on monolingual, English-speaking children when assessing ELLs. Participants were also found to employ identical assessment procedures (assessing first in English without an interpreter, and then bringing in an interpreter for a subsequent testing session) regardless of the English language proficiency of the child. Participants in large measure valued the skills and proficiencies cited in the literature as desirable for interpreters to have, yet they did not express confidence that their interpreters possess these skills. </p><p> The implications of the findings are discussed and recommendations are offered for clinical practice, the school districts, graduate schools, and professional development training aimed at improving bilingual assessment practices. Finally, suggestions are offered for future research on bilingual assessment.</p>