A pesquisa na área de biossensores de glicose tem crescido muito nos últimos anos, devido a sua grande importância no monitoramento contínuo da glicemia em pessoas com diabetes. O estudo da utilização de novos materiais nestes dispositivos, como os polímeros condutores e nanopartículas de ouro, tem sido alvo de extensas pesquisas. Neste trabalho, a polianilina (PAni), um dos polímeros condutores mais estudados, foi sintetizada quimicamente na presença de poli(óxido de etileno) (PEO) e também na presença de PEO e de ácido cloroáurico (HAuCl4), para a formação de nanopartículas de ouro (NPAu). Estes nanocompósitos foram utilizados na fabricação de um biossensor eficiente para glicose, servindo de suporte para a imobilização da enzima glicose oxidase (GOx) e de facilitadores do transporte de elétrons. Os polímeros foram caracterizados por infravermelho com transformada de Fourier (FT-IR), microscopia eletrônica de transmissão (MET), microscopia eletrônica de varredura (MEV), espectroscopia UV-visível, voltametria cíclica e pelo método padrão de 4 pontas. Para a produção dos biossensores, parâmetros como a quantidade de polímero a ser aplicada sobre os eletrodos, a concentração da GOx, o pH do eletrólito de realização dos ensaios eletroquímicos e a quantidade de mediador no eletrólito, foram avaliadas previamente por voltametria cíclica, a fim de encontrar a máxima resposta eletroquímica do biossensor. Além dos ensaios de voltametria cíclica, os biossensores foram caracterizados por espectroscopia de impedância eletroquímica e por cronoamperometria. Através dos ensaios de cronoamperometria foi verificado que o biossensor de PAni-PEO detecta glicose em uma faixa de concentrações de 1 a 10 mM, com sensibilidade de 16,04 μA mM-1 cm-2, e o de PAni-PEO-NPAu, na faixa de 0,1 a 5,5 mM, com sensibilidade de 5,5 e 0,76 μA mM-1 cm-2, nas faixas de concentração de 0,1 a 0,5 e de 1,5 a 5,5 mM, respectivamente. Além disso, ambos os biossensores apresentaram seletividade a interferentes como ácido ascórbico e ácido úrico, confirmando que o sinal gerado nos ensaios eletroquímicos refere-se efetivamente à detecção da glicose. / Research in the area of glucose biosensors has grown tremendously in recent years due to their great importance in continuous glucose monitoring in patients with diabetes. The study of the use of new materials in these devices, such as conductive polymers and gold nanoparticles, has been the subject of extensive research. In this work, polyaniline (PAni), one of the most studied conductive polymers, was chemically synthesized in the presence of polyethylene oxide (PEO) and also in the presence of PEO and chloroauric acid (HAuCl4) for the formation of gold nanoparticles (AuNP). These nanocomposites were used in the manufacture of an efficient glucose biosensor, serving as support for the immobilization of the enzyme glucose oxidase (GOx) and as electron transport facilitators. The polymers were characterized by Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), UV-visible spectroscopy, cyclic voltammetry and standard 4-point pobe method. For the production of the biosensors, parameters such as the amount of polymer to be applied on the electrodes, the concentration of GOx, the electrolyte’s pH of the electrochemical tests and the amount of mediator in the electrolyte were previously evaluated by cyclic voltammetry to find the maximum electrochemical response of the biosensor. In addition to the cyclic voltammetry tests, the biosensors were characterized by electrochemical impedance spectroscopy and chronoamperometry. Through the chronoamperometry assays, it was verified that PAni-PEO biosensor detected glucose in a range of 1 to 10 mM, with a sensitivity of 16,04 μA mM-1 cm-2 and PAni-PEO-NPAu biosensor, in the range of 0,1 to 5,5 mM, with sensitivity of 5,5 and 0,76 μA mM-1 cm-2 in the 0,1 to 0,5 and 1,5 to 5,5 mM ranges, respectively. In addition, both biosensors presented selectivity to interferents such as ascorbic acid and uric acid, confirming that the signal generated in the electrochemical tests effectively refers to the detection of glucose.

J E. coli On-Off &ldquo, &rdquo, °, &ndash The specific objectives of the work presented in this dissertation are to design novel molecular sensors based on fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) between fluorophore (donor) and polydiacetylene (PDA, acceptor) for selective detection of biomolecules in solution. The work described in this dissertation is divided into three sections. In the first section, we report here two novel systems where the rate of energy transfer is based on changes in the spectral overlap between the emission of the donor and the absorption of the acceptor (J) as well as changes in the quantum yield of the acceptor. In the second section, we discuss modified these high sensitive molecular sensors based on FRET by using different receptors for selective detection of biomolecules such as proteins or bacteria in solution. The third section develops reversibility studies on FRET based sensors in solution or solid state. In the Chapters two and three, conjugated polydiacetylene (PDA) possessing stimuli-responsive properties have been intensively investigated for developing efficient sensors. Sensors based on FRET between conjugated polymers and fluorophores can be more sensitive than colorimetric based sensors. We use the fluorophore dansyl as the donor and polydiacetylene (PDA) as the acceptor to demonstrate the modulation of FRET efficiency through conformationally induced changes in the PDA absorption spectrum following thermal treatment that converts the PDA backbone of the liposome from the blue form to the red form. We have used steady-state electronic absorption, emission and fluorescence anisotropy (FA) analysis to characterize the thermal-induced FRET between dansyl fluorophores (donor) and PDA (acceptor). Energy transfer was found to be significantly more efficient from dansyl to the red-form PDA. This is due to large increase in the J values between dansyl emission and absorption red-form of PDA. We also have found that the monomer ratio of acceptor to donor (Rad) and length of linkers (functional part that connects dansyl fluorophores to the diacetylene group in the monomer) strongly affected FRET. A decrease in Rad resulted in diminished acceptor emission amplification. This was primarily attributed to lower FRET efficiency between donors and acceptors and a higher background signal. Increase in Rad led to increase probability of FRET from donor to acceptor as larger number of acceptors are present around a given donor. The competition between donor for energy transfer increases with decrease in Rad that contributed to lower FRET efficiency between donors and acceptors. We also found that the FRET amplification of PDA emissions after heating the solution was much higher when dansyl was linked to diacetylene through longer and flexible linkers than through shorter linkers. We attributed this to the insertion of dansyl in the bilayer of the liposomes which led to an increased dansyl quantum yield and a higher interaction of multiple acceptors with limited available donors. This was not the case for shorter and more rigid linkers where PDA amplification was much smaller. Much larger emission amplification for FRET was observed as compared to direct-excitation of PDA. The present studies aim at enhancing our understanding of FRET between fluorophores and PDA-based conjugated liposomes. These findings support the basis of a new sensing platform that utilizes J-modulated FRET as an actuating mechanism. A FRET based protein sensor by using sulforhodamine 101 as donor and PDA as acceptors was developed. This novel FRET based system primarily utilizes changes in J values (the spectral overlap between the emission of the donor and absorption of the acceptor) for the modulation of FRET efficiency between donors and acceptors. These FRET based sensors can be modified by tagged receptors (for proteins, viruses, and bactria) onto PDA liposomes which can interact with ligands present on proteins or bacteria. The biotin-streptavidin interactions were used as a sensing model system to test our FRET sensor response. In chapter 4, four different biotin-tagged lipids were used as receptors to investigate the effect of interactions between ligand-receptors on the FRET efficiency. The biotin was covalently linked to the liposome surface when using biotin-tagged diacetylene; whereas the biotin-tagged lipids with hydrophobic chains but without diacetylene functionalities provided non-covalently inserted lipids in liposomes. These studies were used to elucidate the effect of molecular interactions on FRET sensor response. The conjugated polymerized liposomes consisted of sulforhodamine-tagged-diacetylene and receptors linked lipids in different molar ratios. The characterization of the liposomes and sensing mechanism was investigated using UV-Vis and steady-state emission spectroscopy. The liposome solution yielded a weak donor emission (sulforhodamine 101) from after photo-polymerization of diacetylene monomers. This is due to energy transfer from the donor to PDA backbone chains (acceptors). The addition of streptavidin which interacted with biotin receptors resulted in increase in the sulforhodamine 101 emissions. The stress, due to interactions between biotin and streptavidin, induced the chromatic shift in the absorption spectrum of PDA which led to a decrease in the spectral overlap (J) between the emission spectra of donor and the absorption spectra of acceptor, leading to a decrease in the FRET efficiency from sulforhodamine 101 to PDA. These sensors, thus, show an "On-Off" type optical mechanism based on FRET between fluorophores and PDA where the donor emission was highly quenched in the "Off" state but was turned "On" due to receptor-ligand interactions. Large electronic absorbance and emission intensity differences between covalently and non-covalently bound biotin liposome systems were observed which indicated that the molecular interactions between biotin and PDA backbone play a crucial role in the FRET sensor response. In Chapter 5, we also developed FRET sensor for the detection of E. coli in aqueous media. Two glucose-based receptors were used in this study: (1) glucose-tagged lipid which can be inserted non-covalently in the bilayer of liposome, and (2) glucose-tagged diacetylene monomer in which the receptors were covalently bound to the backbone of the PDA liposome. The steady-state UV/Vis absorbance and fluorescence emission spectroscopy, and the fluorescence microscopy analysis of the receptors-containing liposomes were investigated for the detection of E. coli. The blue shift in the absorption spectrum of the conjugated PDA backbone induced through the interactions between receptors and bacteria resulted in decrease in the spectral overlap between the emission of SR-101 (donor) and the absorption of PDA (acceptor). This, ultimately, led to change in FRET efficiency between SR-101 and PDA after glucose - E. coli binding and caused increase in the emission intensity of SR-101. Polydiacetylenes have been exploited because of their sensitivity to external stimuli, such as temperature, pH, ions, and ligands. Unfortunately, the majorities of the sensors developed are not reversible but used as a one-time use. Here we report our preliminary results of a benzoic acid monomer of polydiacetylene (PDA-mBzA) to investigate reversible FRET characteristics between fluorophore and PDA. The LS films containing dansyl-tagged-diacetylene monomers and m-aminobenzoic acid derivatized- diacetylene monomers in different molar ratios were self-assembled and polymerized. The UV/Vis and steady-state fluorescence emission analysis of these LS films were investigated. These systems have shown partial reversible FRET over many "on-off" cycles. We believe that this incomplete FRET reversibility is due to liposomes preparation conditions used for liposomes which decreased PDA-mBzA amount in liposomes. We also reported reversible FRET studies on the liposome solutions, made from the monomer of m-aminobenzoic acid derivatized-10,12-pentacosadiynoic acid (PDA-mBzA) monomers and 11-((5-dimethylaminonaphthalene-1-sulfonyl)amino)undecanoic acid (DAUDA) or dansyl-tagged diacetylene. After photo-polymerization, the solution appeared blue in color at room temperature. Heating and cooling cycles (between 25 ºC and 95 ºC temperature range), illustrated a visible color change from blue to red and a complete return to blue over many thermal cycles. Our preliminary reversible absorption and emission measurements showed that there exist opportunities for reversibility in FRET response. We are now performing more experiments to increase the FRET reversibility in these experiments. Although our system does not display full reversibility, the preliminary absorption and emission measurements strongly suggest that there exist opportunities for fully reversible selective and sensitive FRET-based sensors after further optimization of the system.

>Magister Scientiae - MSc / Prostate cancer is a deadly disease that occurs in the male’s prostate gland. A prostate gland is a walnut structure that forms part of the male’s reproductive system. Prostate cancer is caused by high level than normal of PSA (Gleason score > 4 ng ml-1) in human blood. Some symptoms associated with high levels of PSA include blood in urine, pain when urinating, difficulty in getting and keeping an erection, blood in semen and pain in upper thigh. An immunosensor is a type of biosensor that has an antigen or antibody fragment as its biological recognition component. The specificity of the molecular recognition of antigen by antibodies to form a stable complex is the basis of immunosensor technology. In this work, overoxidized polypyrrole (OvoxPpy) was electrosynthesized as a novel sensor platform on glassy carbon electrode (GCE). The OvoxPpy was then doped with osmium telluride quantum dots(OsTe2QDs) by drop-coating method to form OsTe2QDs|OvoxPpy|GCE system. The morphology and the size of OsTe2QDs|OvoxPpy|GCE nanocomposite were determined using scanning electron microscopy. The size of thioglycolic acid capped osmium telluride quantum dots (TGA-OsTe2QDs) used as support material for the biosensor was about 2.289 nm. These quantum dots showed an excellent photo-absorption properties with an ultraviolet- visible (UV-Vis) photo absortion band occurring at 406nm associated with high band energy of 3.05 eV. The electrochemical immunosensor for PSA was prepared by immobilizing anti- PSA-antibody onto the OsTe2QDs|OvoxPpy|GCE by drop-coating and allowing it to dry for 2h. The nanocomposite sensor platform and the immunosensor were electrochemically characterised by voltammetric and impedimetric techniques. The phase shift in Bode diagram at maximum frequency was indicative of kinetic changes. Charge transfer resistance, Rct, was used as the analytical parameter for measuring the interfacial kinetics which occurred as a result of the bio-recognition event between anti-PSA-antibody and PSA. The impedance of the quantum dot electrode (TGA-OsTe2QDs-Nafion|GCE) was lower (1.490 x 104 kΩ) than the impedance of the immunosensor platform (BSA-Anti-PSA-antibody|TGA-OsTe2 QDs|OvoxPpy|GCE), 2.754 x 104. The Rct of the immunosensor was found to increase with increasing concentration of PSA. The linearity of the immunosensor at the very low concentration range (1.266 - 4.207 fg ml-1) tested, confirms its high sensitivity for PSA.

Ce manuscrit de thèse présente les recherches et les applications potentielles en tant que plate-forme (bio) capteur des couches minces conformes de ZnO et / ou Al2O3 / ZnO nanolaminates, déposées par dépôt de couche atomique (ALD) sur les différents substrats. Tout d'abord, une étude des propriétés optiques des films minces ZnO (20 et 50 nm) déposés par la technique ALD sur les grandes zones de nanofils de silicium ordonné (SiNW), réalisée en combinant la lithographie à la nanosphère et la gravure chimique à base de métal, a été réalisée. Ces méthodes ont permis la morphologie et le contrôle organisationnel des SiNW sur une grande surface. L'étude détaillée des propriétés structurales et optiques de l'hétérostructure SiNWs / ZnO à noyau-coquille a été réalisée en utilisant respectivement la spectroscopie XRD, SEM, de réflectance et de photoluminescence. L'intégration des tableaux SiNWs en tant que noyau et ZnO comme coque peut avoir un impact important sur le développement d'éléments de détection avec des propriétés améliorées. Dans les recherches ultérieures, des films ZnO formés par ALD en tant que plate-forme de biocapteur optique pour la détection des protéines de type A du virus Grapevine (antigènes GVA) ont été représentés. La détection de l'antigène GVA a été effectuée en utilisant les changements dans le comportement de la bande PL liée à la GVA. La sélectivité du biocapteur a été prouvée. La possibilité de détecter les antigènes GVA sans étiquettes supplémentaires a été démontrée. Ainsi, on a développé un biosensor à base de photoluminescence à base de photoluminescence libre pour les antigènes GVA. Une autre partie de notre étude est un contrôle spécifique de l'ancrage des protéines par le développement d'une surface multifonctionnelle avec une grande gamme de sphères de polystyrène (PSS), produite par la lithographie de nanosphère et bloquant davantage l'adsorption non spécifique des protéines à la surface du PSS par SAM de PEG. La microscopie d'épifluorescence a été utilisée pour confirmer qu'après l'immersion de l'échantillon sur la protéine cible (avidine et anti-avidine), ces dernières sont spécifiquement situées sur une sphère de polystyrène. Ces résultats sont significatifs pour l'exploration de dispositifs basés sur un nanoarray à grande échelle de sphères de PS et peuvent être utilisés pour la détection de protéines cibles ou simplement pour structurer une surface avec des protéines spécifiques. Notre recherche comprend également l'ajustement des propriétés structurelles et l'amélioration des propriétés électroniques et optiques des nanolaminés 1D PAN ZnO / Al2O3 conçus par dépôt de couche atomique (ALD) et électrospinning. Les propriétés structurelles et optiques de Al2O3 / ZnO déterminées à partir des analyses XPS, TEM, FTIR, XRD et PL. L'amélioration des propriétés électroniques et optiques permettrait l'application dans différents domaines de tels capteurs et biosensors. / This thesis manuscript presents the investigations and potential applications as a (bio)sensor platform of the conform thin layers of ZnO and/or Al2O3/ZnO nanolaminates, deposited by atomic layer deposition (ALD) on the various substrates. First, a study of the optical properties of ZnO thin films (20 and 50 nm) deposited by ALD technique on the large areas of ordered silicon nanowires (SiNWs), produced by combining nanosphere lithography and metal-assisted chemical etching, was performed. These methods allowed the morphology and the organization control of SiNWs on a large area. The detailed study of structural and optical properties of core-shell SiNWs/ZnO heterostructure was done by utilizing XRD, SEM, reflectance and photoluminescence spectroscopy, respectively. Integration of SiNWs arrays as core and ZnO as shell can have a strong impact on the development of sensing elements with improved properties. In the further investigations, ZnO films formed by ALD as an optical biosensor platform for the detection of Grapevine virus A-type proteins (GVA-antigens) were represented. The GVA-antigen detection was performed using the changes in the GVA related PL band behavior. The biosensor selectivity has been proved. The possibility to detect GVA-antigens without additional labels has been demonstrated. Thus, label free and sensitive photoluminescence based biosensor for GVA-antigens has been developed. Another part of our study is a specific control of protein anchoring by the development of multifunctional surface with large-scale array of polystyrene spheres (PSS), which produced by nanosphere lithography and further blocking the unspecific adsorption of protein on the surface of the PSS by PEG SAMs. The epifluorescence microscopy was used to confirm that after immersion of sample on target protein (avidin and anti-avidin) solution, the latter are specifically located on polystyrene sphere. These results are meaningful for exploration of devices based on large-scale nanoarray of PS spheres and can be used for detection of target proteins or simply to pattern a surface with specific proteins. Our research also includes the tuning of structural properties and the enhancement of electronic and optical properties of 1D PAN ZnO/Al2O3 nanolaminates designed by atomic layer deposition (ALD) and electrospinning. The structural and optical properties of Al2O3/ ZnO determined from the XPS, TEM, FTIR, XRD and PL analysis. The enhancement of electronic and optical properties would allow application in different fields such sensors and biosensors.

Neste trabalho é apresentado um estudo da imobilização da enzima horseradish peroxidase (HRPO) em matriz polimérica através de dois métodos diferentes. O primeiro consiste em um método de uma etapa, no qual a HRPO é imobilizada por eletropolimerização de pirrol em meio aquoso com eletrodo de platina – técnica esta denominada entrapment – visando a confecção de biossensores enzimáticos para a detecção amperométrica de peróxido de hidrogênio (H2O2). A matriz polimérica com a enzima imobilizada foi analisada por reação colorimétrica, confirmando as afirmações de alguns autores sobre a baixa quantidade de enzima imobilizada, e FTIR mostrando espectros bastante semelhantes entre os filmes de polipirrol (PPy) puro e de PPY + HRPO. Foram realizados estudos do efeito das concentrações de monômero, enzima e eletrólito, assim como dos parâmetros eletroquímicos para a otimização da preparação do biossensor. Os valores dos parâmetros otimizados serviram de referência para o estudo do segundo método de imobilização, no qual é utilizado um anticorpo específico para a enzima HRPO, o V3.5R3, imobilizado via entrapment com a HRPO inoculada ao sistema através da imersão do substrato formado (PPy-V3.5R3) em uma solução de HRPO. Os dois métodos de confecção dos biossensores para a determinação quantitativa de H2O2 são comparados: em relação ao parâmetro comportamento linear, verificou-se uma faixa de concentração de 0 a 15 mmol/L de H2O2 para o método via entrapment, enquanto que através do método com inoculação foi verificado um comportamento linear de 2 a 8 mmol/L de H2O2. Em relação à resposta do biossensor, tem-se para a concentração de 8 mmol/L de H2O2, uma corrente de aproximadamente 600 nA utilizando biossensores preparados pelo método de entrapment e 300 nA pelo método com inoculação. Apesar do baixo desempenho da imobilização do anticorpo V3.5R3 para a detecção de H2O2, o sucesso na imobilização de diferentes biocomponentes e o desenvolvimento de mecanismos como a inoculação amplia o espectro de possibilidades para o estudo de biossensores. / In this work is presented a study of the immobilization of the enzyme horseradish peroxidase (HRPO) in polymeric matrix by two different methods. The first one consist in a one-step method, in which the HRPO is immobilized by electropolymerization of pyrrole in aqueous solution onto platin electrode – techniques denominated entrapment – aiming the confection of enzymatic biosensors for the amperometric detection of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). The polymeric matrix with the immobilized enzyme (substrate PPy-HRPO) was analyzed by colorimetric reaction, confirming the affirmations of some authors about the low quantities of enzymatic immobilization, and FTIR, what shows very similar specters for the polypyrrole (PPy) film and the PPy + HRPO. Studies of the concentrations of monomer, enzyme and electrolyte, as well as of the electrochemical parameters, have been carried through for the optimization of the biossensor. The values of the optimized parameters were used as reference for the study of the second immobilization method, in which is used a specific antibody for enzyme HRPO, the V3.5R3, immobilized via entrapment. The HRPO is, then, inoculated to the system by immersion of the PPy-V3.5R3 substrate in HRPO solution. The results of the biossensores confectioned by the two methods are compared: about the linear behavior it was verified a range of concentration form 0 to 15 mmol/L of H2O2, while through the second method was verified a linear range of 2 to 8 mmol/L of H2O2. About the signal response, for the same concentration of 8 mmol/L of H2O2, an electric current of 600 nA was reached, against 300 nA with the biosensors constructed by the second method. Although the low performance of the immobilization of the antibody V3.5R3 for the H2O2 detection, the success in different biocomponents immobilization and the development of mechanisms as the inoculation increases the possibilities specter for biosensors research.

The main aim of work presented here is to design, develop and characterize a colorimetric model membrane (liposome) systems, which can bind with proteins, enzymes, bacteria, virus and other biomolecules. PDA molecules are utilized as a scaffold for the bilayer membrane, and a colorimetric assay is carried out. The holy grail of present work contributes towards the better understanding of protein interactions with the cell bilayer surface. Chapter 1 introduces a brief history on the advent of bilayer systems for cellular research exploration. We presented a literature survey about how liposome systems are used as a complementary technique to understand the fundamental principles of cellular membrane functions. Furthermore, we describe about membrane protein functions and recent findings on how proteins interact with the cell membrane. Finally, we explain conjugated systems and their exploration in bilayer membrane as a colorimetric scaffold. We also touch bases with major fluorescence techniques used in our experiments. Chapter 2 provides details on the preparation protocols of liposome and liposome-protein complexes. We confirmed protein-bilayer interactions by monitoring FRET between PDA and rhodamine molecules. Furthermore, we performed streptavidin-biotin binding studies on the PDA bilayer. Protein binding changed the spectral overlap (J) between PDA and rhodamine, which ultimately increased the fluorescence emission of rhodamine. The goal of performing these studies was to present a complete protocol for the preparation of liposome and protein-liposome complex. In chapter 3, we investigate how proteins bind on the cell membrane. Additionally, we propose a model of protein-bilayer complex. We reported that, by harnessing cell bilayer with specific bio-molecules, we monitored protein--bilayer, protein--protein and enzyme--substrate signal transduction. We have developed a colorimetric system for monitoring vital stimulations occur on the liposomal membrane surface. Bilayer was modified to covalently bind the amino group of lysine residues present on protein molecules. These bio-molecular interactions on bilayer surface provide differential stimulus, which turned out to be the major cause of differential spectroscopic signals depending upon size and shape of the protein bounded to the bilayer. Polydiacetylene (PDA) liposomes are the core of our color based system. These liposomes are used to monitor subtle interactions on the bilayer surface. We have also developed a semi-quantitative method based on the colorimetric response of PDA liposomes; we were able to detect protein molecules at sub-nanomolar concentrations in the solution. It's capability of distinguishing protein molecules based on their chemical and physical interactions to bilayer contributes towards the identity of our system. Interestingly, our mass spectroscopic data suggested non-specific enzymatic cleavage of membrane-bound proteins. These fragments were not present in bulk protein cleavage. We also proposed a model that depicts the covalent binding of protein at the bilayer of liposomes. These studies are intended to investigate protein-bilayer and enzyme-protein interaction occurring on the cell surface. In chapter 4, we focus on the kinetics of protein interaction on bilayer surface and we also attempt to visualize these interactions by exploring fluorescence microscopy. A self-assembled cell membrane is consisted of various lipids, which cluster themselves in their preferred phase separated regions. Lipid clusters are very important for lipid specific protein interactions. We investigated protein binding on such phase separated regions under a fluorescence microscope. Furthermore, we enzymatically catalyzed proteins, which were covalently bonded on the bilayer surface. This catalytic reaction was monitored both spectroscopically and under a fluorescence microscope. These studies were performed to help us in the better understanding of biological interactions at cell surface. Chapter 5, describes the encapsulation and controlled delivery of antimicrobial compounds from liposomes. Use of antimicrobial coatings on food packaging is one of the important technologies of active packaging for improving food safety. There is growing demand for natural antimicrobials because of fear of adverse health effects of synthetic preservatives. The main objective of this study is to compare antimicrobial activity of free versus encapsulated curcumin. Glass surfaces coated with nano-encapsulated curcumin may be used as an active packaging material in preserving liquid foods; however, further study is required to improve antimicrobial activities of polylactic acid PLA surfaces. In chapter 6, we investigate interactions between receptors and ligands at bilayer surface of polydiacetylene (PDA) liposomal nanoparticles using changes in electronic absorption spectroscopy and fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET). We study the effect of mode of linkage (covalent versus noncovalent) between the receptor and liposome bilayer. We also examine the effect of size-dependent interactions between liposome and analyte through electronic absorption and FRET responses. Glucose (receptor) molecules were either covalently or noncovalently attached at the bilayer of nanoparticles, and they provided selectivity for molecular interactions between glucose and glycoprotein ligands of E. coli. These interactions induced stress on conjugated PDA chain which resulted in changes (blue to red) in the absorption spectrum of PDA. The changes in electronic absorbance also led to changes in FRET efficiency between conjugated PDA chains (acceptor) and fluorophores (Sulphorhodamine-101) (donor) attached to the bilayer surface. Interestingly, we did not find significant differences in UV−Vis and FRET responses for covalently and noncovalently bound glucose to liposomes following their interactions with E. coli. We attributed these results to close proximity of glucose receptor molecules to the liposome bilayer surface such that induced stress were similar in both the cases. We also found that PDA emission from direct excitation mechanism was ∼2−10 times larger than that of the FRET-based response. These differences in emission signals were attributed to three major reasons: nonspecific interactions between E. coli and liposomes, size differences between analyte and liposomes, and a much higher PDA concentration with respect to sulforhodamine (SR-101). We have proposed a model to explain our experimental observations. Our fundamental studies reported here will help in enhancing our knowledge regarding interactions involved between soft particles at molecular levels. In chapter 7, we conclude the summary of all work carried out in previous chapters.

Ces dernières années, de nouvelles règlementations concernant la protection environnementale ont vu le jour, notamment avec la Directive Cadre sur l'Eau proposée en 2000. Celle-ci impose des normes de plus en plus contraignantes sur les rejets des systèmes d'assainissement dans les milieux récepteurs. Ces rejets sont d'autant plus conséquents que les évènements pluvieux sont plus intenses, causes du changement climatique, et que la population augmente comme le souligne le Plan National Santé Environnement (2009-2013). Le test de la Demande Biologique en Oxygène (DBO) est à ce jour le plus largement utilisé pour répondre à ces normes. Cependant, sa durée de réalisation ne permet pas aux gestionnaires de systèmes d'assainissement d'anticiper les pics de pollution, et de rétroagir sur le procédé d'assainissement avant déversement dans le milieu récepteur. De plus, ce test normalisé utilise un inoculum bactérien, issu de l'environnement, contenant différentes souches dont la diversité et la concentration est inconnue. Ceci ne permet pas, alors, d'avoir une bonne reproductibilité sur la mesure de la DBO. C'est donc dans ce contexte de protection environnementale que le projet BIOGUARD, issu d'une entente entre la recherche académique et les industriels du domaine, se positionne. Dans le cadre de ces travaux de thèse, nous avons développé des outils et méthodes permettant de réduire à la fois le volume d'échantillon utilisé pour la mesure par une approche d'intégration microsystème, et à la fois la durée de l'analyse par une optimisation du processus de biodégradation par les bactéries, et par une approche de modélisation mathématique. Deux types de capteurs optiques ont été utilisés, le premier permettant de mesurer l'oxygène dissous, et le second permettant de mesurer l'activité bactérienne. Ces deux capteurs ont été intégrés dans des dispositifs microfluidiques en technologie verre-PDMS, qui est une technologie tout à fait adapté à ce type de recherche du fait de sa biocompatibilité, de sa simplicité de mise en œuvre et de sa grande adaptabilité. L'une des innovations de ce projet est de proposer un biocapteur combinant les réponses de plusieurs souches bactériennes spécifiquement choisies afin d'augmenter la précision et la reproductibilité de la mesure. Lors de nos expériences, cependant, une seule souche bactérienne sera utilisée. Une étude des facteurs d'influence a été mené afin d'observer les changements du comportement bactérien. Avec les résultats expérimentaux obtenus, nous avons tenté d'expliquer ces changements par une approche mathématique, en utilisant des modèles théoriques de croissance bactérienne, dans le but de prédire la valeur de la DBO. Enfin, un prototype macro-fluidique, basé sur une seule souche bactérienne, réutilisable et automatique a également été développé dans le but de proposer une architecture fluidique simple que l'on pourrait alors dupliquer pour l'utilisation de la totalité des souches prévues dans le projet. / In recent years, new regulations concerning environmental protection have emerged, particularly with the Water Framework Directive proposed in 2000. It imposes standards more restrictive on discharges from wastewater systems in receiving environments. These discharges are even more consistent than the rainfall events are more intense, causes of climate change, and population increases as outlined in the Plan National Santé Environnement (2009-2013). The test of the Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) is to date the most widely used to meet these standards. However, its achievement time does not allow managers sewerage systems to anticipate pollution peaks, and to retroact on the purification process prior to discharge into receiving environment. In addition, this standardized test uses a bacterial inoculum from the environment, containing different strains with the diversity and concentration is unknown. This does not, then, to have a good reproducibility of the measurement of the BOD. It is in this environmental protection context that the BIOGUARD project, result of an agreement between academic and industrial research in the field, is positioned. As part of these thesis works, we developed tools and methods to reduce both the volume of sample used for the measurement with a micro-integration approach, and both the duration of the analysis by an optimization of the biodegradation process by bacteria, and by mathematical modeling approach. Two types of optical sensors have been used, the first for measuring dissolved oxygen, and the second to measure the bacterial activity. Both sensors have been integrated into microfluidic devices in PDMS-glass technology, a technology perfectly suited to this type of research because of its biocompatibility, its simplicity of implementation and its great adaptability. One of the innovations of this project is to provide a biosensor combining responses to several bacterial strains specifically selected to increase the accuracy and reproducibility of the measurement. In our experiments, however, a single bacterial strain is used. A study of influencing factors was conducted to observe changes in bacterial behavior. With the experimental results, we have tried to explain these changes by a mathematical approach, using theoretical models of bacterial growth, in order to predict the value of BOD. Finally, a macro-fluidic prototype, based on a single bacterial strain, reusable and automatic was also developed to provide a simple fluidic architecture that could be duplicated for use with all strains included in the project.

This work describes the development of mediated amperometric biosensors that are able to monitor the metabolic activity of both single and mixed microbial populations, with applications in toxicity assessment and wastewater treatment plant protection. Biosensor systems have been constructed incorporating either the single-species eubacteria Escherichia coli or Pseudomonas putida, Bioseed®, or a mixture of activated sludge organisms from wastewater treatment plants, as the sensing components immobilised on disposable screen printed electrodes in stirred reaction vials. The biosensor approach is generic allowing for a wide range of microbial cell types to be employed. Appropriate bacterial species can be selected for specific sensor applications in order to confer validity and relevance to the test, hence the biosensor can be tailor-made to assess the toxicity in a particular environment and provide diagnostically valid and relevant results. The biosensors have been used to assess the toxicity of a standard toxicant and toxicant formulations and in blind testing of a range of industrial effluents, in parallel with a number of bioassays including Microtox® and activated sludge respiration inhibition. The biosensor results generally show significant correlation to the appropriate conventional toxicity tests. In this study, an activated sludge based biosensor assay was developed and used to assess the toxicity of industrial process and site effluents with the specific purpose of wastewater treatment plant protection. Data generated compared significantly with those from an activated sludge respiration inhibition test, with added advantages of rapidity, safety and ease of use.

A pesquisa na área de biossensores de glicose tem crescido muito nos últimos anos, devido a sua grande importância no monitoramento contínuo da glicemia em pessoas com diabetes. O estudo da utilização de novos materiais nestes dispositivos, como os polímeros condutores e nanopartículas de ouro, tem sido alvo de extensas pesquisas. Neste trabalho, a polianilina (PAni), um dos polímeros condutores mais estudados, foi sintetizada quimicamente na presença de poli(óxido de etileno) (PEO) e também na presença de PEO e de ácido cloroáurico (HAuCl4), para a formação de nanopartículas de ouro (NPAu). Estes nanocompósitos foram utilizados na fabricação de um biossensor eficiente para glicose, servindo de suporte para a imobilização da enzima glicose oxidase (GOx) e de facilitadores do transporte de elétrons. Os polímeros foram caracterizados por infravermelho com transformada de Fourier (FT-IR), microscopia eletrônica de transmissão (MET), microscopia eletrônica de varredura (MEV), espectroscopia UV-visível, voltametria cíclica e pelo método padrão de 4 pontas. Para a produção dos biossensores, parâmetros como a quantidade de polímero a ser aplicada sobre os eletrodos, a concentração da GOx, o pH do eletrólito de realização dos ensaios eletroquímicos e a quantidade de mediador no eletrólito, foram avaliadas previamente por voltametria cíclica, a fim de encontrar a máxima resposta eletroquímica do biossensor. Além dos ensaios de voltametria cíclica, os biossensores foram caracterizados por espectroscopia de impedância eletroquímica e por cronoamperometria. Através dos ensaios de cronoamperometria foi verificado que o biossensor de PAni-PEO detecta glicose em uma faixa de concentrações de 1 a 10 mM, com sensibilidade de 16,04 μA mM-1 cm-2, e o de PAni-PEO-NPAu, na faixa de 0,1 a 5,5 mM, com sensibilidade de 5,5 e 0,76 μA mM-1 cm-2, nas faixas de concentração de 0,1 a 0,5 e de 1,5 a 5,5 mM, respectivamente. Além disso, ambos os biossensores apresentaram seletividade a interferentes como ácido ascórbico e ácido úrico, confirmando que o sinal gerado nos ensaios eletroquímicos refere-se efetivamente à detecção da glicose. / Research in the area of glucose biosensors has grown tremendously in recent years due to their great importance in continuous glucose monitoring in patients with diabetes. The study of the use of new materials in these devices, such as conductive polymers and gold nanoparticles, has been the subject of extensive research. In this work, polyaniline (PAni), one of the most studied conductive polymers, was chemically synthesized in the presence of polyethylene oxide (PEO) and also in the presence of PEO and chloroauric acid (HAuCl4) for the formation of gold nanoparticles (AuNP). These nanocomposites were used in the manufacture of an efficient glucose biosensor, serving as support for the immobilization of the enzyme glucose oxidase (GOx) and as electron transport facilitators. The polymers were characterized by Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), UV-visible spectroscopy, cyclic voltammetry and standard 4-point pobe method. For the production of the biosensors, parameters such as the amount of polymer to be applied on the electrodes, the concentration of GOx, the electrolyte’s pH of the electrochemical tests and the amount of mediator in the electrolyte were previously evaluated by cyclic voltammetry to find the maximum electrochemical response of the biosensor. In addition to the cyclic voltammetry tests, the biosensors were characterized by electrochemical impedance spectroscopy and chronoamperometry. Through the chronoamperometry assays, it was verified that PAni-PEO biosensor detected glucose in a range of 1 to 10 mM, with a sensitivity of 16,04 μA mM-1 cm-2 and PAni-PEO-NPAu biosensor, in the range of 0,1 to 5,5 mM, with sensitivity of 5,5 and 0,76 μA mM-1 cm-2 in the 0,1 to 0,5 and 1,5 to 5,5 mM ranges, respectively. In addition, both biosensors presented selectivity to interferents such as ascorbic acid and uric acid, confirming that the signal generated in the electrochemical tests effectively refers to the detection of glucose.

Neste trabalho é apresentado um estudo da imobilização da enzima horseradish peroxidase (HRPO) em matriz polimérica através de dois métodos diferentes. O primeiro consiste em um método de uma etapa, no qual a HRPO é imobilizada por eletropolimerização de pirrol em meio aquoso com eletrodo de platina – técnica esta denominada entrapment – visando a confecção de biossensores enzimáticos para a detecção amperométrica de peróxido de hidrogênio (H2O2). A matriz polimérica com a enzima imobilizada foi analisada por reação colorimétrica, confirmando as afirmações de alguns autores sobre a baixa quantidade de enzima imobilizada, e FTIR mostrando espectros bastante semelhantes entre os filmes de polipirrol (PPy) puro e de PPY + HRPO. Foram realizados estudos do efeito das concentrações de monômero, enzima e eletrólito, assim como dos parâmetros eletroquímicos para a otimização da preparação do biossensor. Os valores dos parâmetros otimizados serviram de referência para o estudo do segundo método de imobilização, no qual é utilizado um anticorpo específico para a enzima HRPO, o V3.5R3, imobilizado via entrapment com a HRPO inoculada ao sistema através da imersão do substrato formado (PPy-V3.5R3) em uma solução de HRPO. Os dois métodos de confecção dos biossensores para a determinação quantitativa de H2O2 são comparados: em relação ao parâmetro comportamento linear, verificou-se uma faixa de concentração de 0 a 15 mmol/L de H2O2 para o método via entrapment, enquanto que através do método com inoculação foi verificado um comportamento linear de 2 a 8 mmol/L de H2O2. Em relação à resposta do biossensor, tem-se para a concentração de 8 mmol/L de H2O2, uma corrente de aproximadamente 600 nA utilizando biossensores preparados pelo método de entrapment e 300 nA pelo método com inoculação. Apesar do baixo desempenho da imobilização do anticorpo V3.5R3 para a detecção de H2O2, o sucesso na imobilização de diferentes biocomponentes e o desenvolvimento de mecanismos como a inoculação amplia o espectro de possibilidades para o estudo de biossensores. / In this work is presented a study of the immobilization of the enzyme horseradish peroxidase (HRPO) in polymeric matrix by two different methods. The first one consist in a one-step method, in which the HRPO is immobilized by electropolymerization of pyrrole in aqueous solution onto platin electrode – techniques denominated entrapment – aiming the confection of enzymatic biosensors for the amperometric detection of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). The polymeric matrix with the immobilized enzyme (substrate PPy-HRPO) was analyzed by colorimetric reaction, confirming the affirmations of some authors about the low quantities of enzymatic immobilization, and FTIR, what shows very similar specters for the polypyrrole (PPy) film and the PPy + HRPO. Studies of the concentrations of monomer, enzyme and electrolyte, as well as of the electrochemical parameters, have been carried through for the optimization of the biossensor. The values of the optimized parameters were used as reference for the study of the second immobilization method, in which is used a specific antibody for enzyme HRPO, the V3.5R3, immobilized via entrapment. The HRPO is, then, inoculated to the system by immersion of the PPy-V3.5R3 substrate in HRPO solution. The results of the biossensores confectioned by the two methods are compared: about the linear behavior it was verified a range of concentration form 0 to 15 mmol/L of H2O2, while through the second method was verified a linear range of 2 to 8 mmol/L of H2O2. About the signal response, for the same concentration of 8 mmol/L of H2O2, an electric current of 600 nA was reached, against 300 nA with the biosensors constructed by the second method. Although the low performance of the immobilization of the antibody V3.5R3 for the H2O2 detection, the success in different biocomponents immobilization and the development of mechanisms as the inoculation increases the possibilities specter for biosensors research.