The physical representation of the Buddha (Siddhartha Gautama) is characterized by some thirty-two uncommon attributes that are described in the Lalitavistara as the marks of a great man. The origin of these attributes, whether they are actual physical observations, of symbolic origin or a combination is unclear. In various art forms depicting the Buddha, he is usually shown with some but not all of these attributes. We have examined the origin of these physical attributes, by considering what is known of similarly described physical variations in humans (both congenital and acquired) and by examining the Sanskrit medical texts, such as the Sushruta-Samhita and the Charaka-Samhita, for descriptions of these and similar attributes. It is plausible that the observation of most of these thirty-two uncommon physical attributes might well have been accumulated over centuries as a result of contact by observers with various afflicted persons. It is kept in mind that the Buddha is described as physically well endowed and healthy, while the occurrence of the physical attributes themselves are sought in disorders. The concept of the physical marks of a great man, having been formulated in an earlier period, is applied to the image of the Buddha himself.

Thesis (M.A.)--University of Hong Kong, 2009. / Includes bibliographical references (p. 84-91).

Proefschrift - Leiden. / Text in French and Tibetan. Chapters 18-22.

published_or_final_version / Chinese / Master / Master of Philosophy

published_or_final_version / Buddhist Studies / Doctoral / Doctor of Philosophy

 One of the early texts translated from Sanskrit into ancient Chinese in around 411C.E. is called the Dharmatrāta-dhyāna-sūtra(T15, no.618) which was a detailed account of the meditational methods of Buddhasena and Dharmatrāta who were the two most renowned dhyāna teachers in Kaśmīra around 400C.E. They may be regarded as belonging to the tradition of the Sarvāstivāda Dārṣṭāntika masters who were characterized by their active interest in meditation and popular preaching in which theyexcelled in communicating through poems and allegories. The Dharmatrāta-dhyāna-sūtra exemplifies these features. It is preaching on meditation, written in verses and abounding in similes. Buddhabhadra (359-429), the translator, was also a prominent meditational instructor. This sūtra, despite its unprecedented impact on the development of dhyāna practice and the later proliferation of Ch’an Buddhism in China, has long been under-estimated. It has never been translated from ancient Chinese into modern English for the benefit of the English-speaking world. Hence, the purpose of my thesis is to address this issue, giving appropriate weight to this sūtra with annotation and a critical introduction to clarify the somewhat chaotic background surrounding the compilation of this sūtra. By doing so, I have made painstaking effort in establishing the unshakable claim that the sūtra is a Sarvāstivāda text (Part VII, Introduction). I also compare the methods of meditation expounded in this sūtra with those of the AKB, arriving at the conclusion that they are almost identical (Part XI, Introduction). In addition, the meditation system commonly shared by the Hīnayāna and the Mahāyāna is analysed with a view to demonstrating the fact that whilst the techniques are virtually the same, the interpretation, on the other hand, could be different. In the course of my research, I have also compiled a Chinese-Sanskrit-English glossary, juxtaposing the ancient Chinese terms with Sanskrit and modern English for the benefit of furture researchers. This sūtra essentially preserves the ancient Sarvāstivādin meditation teachniques. But it importantly incorporates Mahāyānistic-Tantric elements, such as the maṇḍala and visualization. This is another important aspect of my text discussed in the introduction of my thesis. As a result, it came to exert a great impact on the subsequent teaching and practice of Chinese Buddhism, particularly those of Buddhist meditation. / published_or_final_version / Buddhist Studies / Doctoral / Doctor of Philosophy

Liang Shu-ming (1893–1988) is one of the most influential thinkers of contemporary China. Most studies on Liang Shu-ming focus on his Confucian thought and his role as the forerunner of the New Confucianism movement. However, Liang Shu-ming was a devoted Buddhist in his youth. He employed Buddhist concepts and terminology extensively in his works, and publicly declared himself a Buddhist in his old age. Hence there have been heated debates among scholars to determine whether Liang Shu-ming was a Buddhist or a Confucianist. The present thesis analyses in detail Liang Shu-ming’s central writings and teachings; with a view to highlighting the importance of Buddhism to his thought. Liang Shu-ming grew up at a time when China was increasingly exposed to Western influences. When new style intellectuals were denouncing traditional knowledge, Liang Shu-ming chose to believe in Buddhism, and proclaimed in his early works that Buddhism was superior to Western philosophy. He argued that only Buddhism could provide the ultimate solution to the cardinal human problem of suffering, that Buddhist ideas were not as restrictive as Western philosophical concepts (e.g. idealism, materialism), that the supramundane absorption advocated by Buddhism was superior to secular intelligence. Liang Shu-ming declared himself a Confucianist by the time he reached middle age, but his works continued to use a large number of Buddhist notions and terms. He constructed his epistemology around Yogācāra concepts, and evaluated culture mainly from the Buddhist standpoint. Especially significant for our purpose are his claim that Buddhism is the highest religion, and his prediction of the revival of Buddhism at the final stage of development of human civilization. Buddhism occupied an even more important position in his late works, in which he, among other things, compared and contrasted the teachings of Buddhism with those of Confucianism and Daoism. He discussed in some depth the similarities and dissimilarities in their understanding of human nature, the purpose of life, the significance of bodily and spiritual cultivation, etc, with the aim of demonstrating that Buddhism will eventually become the main stream of world culture in the future. The thesis also investigates the personal, social and historical factors contributing to Liang Shu-ming’s early belief in Buddhism, his shift from Buddhism to Confucianism in his middle years, and his return to Buddhist in his old age, so as to determine whether he was ultimately a Confucianist or a Buddhist. / published_or_final_version / Chinese / Doctoral / Doctor of Philosophy

In this comparative study, the author investigated the differences between the tathāgatagarbha in the rNyingma’s teaching and Lao Tzu’s Dao based on qualitative-based interpretivism paradigm. The purpose of this paper is about decoding the concept of the tathāgatagarbha in both academy-based methodology and practitioner-oriented view, and therefore the meanings of the Dao from a new dimension will be revealed. Through this paper, readers are able to see the worldviews and the core teachings of both great wisdoms are fundamentally different, but in some parts they are mutually interpenetrated and interlaced. The analysis of this paper is determined by the examination of ancient Buddhist sutras, Daoist scriptures, scholarly periodicals, online journals, the Buddhist books written by the rNying ma masters, and the authoritative Daoist scholars in the Chinese academic circle. The results reveal the idea of the Dao in the Dao De Ching is essentially different the establishments of the fourfold dependent origination and the three verses of the Great Perfection in the tathāgatagarbha system of the rNying ma school; nonetheless, there are some complex relationships between the function of the tathāgatagarbha and the faculty of the Dao. / published_or_final_version / Buddhist Studies / Master / Master of Buddhist Studies

published_or_final_version / Buddhist Studies / Doctoral / Doctor of Philosophy

This dissertation continues the scholarship on the significant values of Buddhist narratives in reconstructing and understanding the ideological features of Buddhists in ancient India. By focusing on the narrative theme of the salvation of the patricide Ajatasatru in Indian Buddhist literature, I hope to demonstrate how stories of this notorious anantarya criminal were constructed and exploited by Buddhist authors to convey different concerns and to achieve different purposes. Based on a close reading of three groups of Buddhist stories which separately present Ajatasatru’s confession to the Buddha after his patricide, his future attainment of pratyekabuddhahood and his future buddha-hood, I have argued that there is a considerable fluidity and diversity in Buddhist illustrations and interpretations of the salvation of Ajatasatru. Given Ajatasatru’s double identity as both an anantarya criminal and a famous upasaka, such diversity may open windows into different views of Buddhist authors on the workings of karma and into their different emphases in Buddhist soteriological discourse. Moreover, given Ajatasatru’s unique connection with the schismatic monk Devadatta, stories of his salvation also form one part of the antiheterodox polemics in Indian Buddhism. Through examining the changing shapes and meanings of narrative presentations of the salvation of Ajatasatru, I have suggested that this narrative theme is not a monolith, but a multi-faceted complex which has various dimensions including, for instance, his repentance for the patricide, his acquisition of faith in the Buddha, his change in attitude towards Devadatta, his relief of mental anguish, his spiritual attainment in this life, the mitigation of his future suffering in hell, and/or his eventual liberation. When we consider how the salvation of Ajatasatru is interpreted in a Buddhist source, instead of simply determining whether Ajatasatru is saved or not, we should identify relevant dimensions of his salvation, to see in what sense he is said to be saved, and examine how those dimensions are constructed within the context of that source. It is based on such a multi-dimensional assessment that we may gain a better understanding of the process of how the multi-valency and successful functioning of the theme of salvation of Ajatasatru were achieved in the world of Indian Buddhist storytelling.