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The Aldo-Keto Reductases (AKR) are a group of oxidoreductase enzymes structurally and mechanistically distinct from the Alcohol Dehydrogenases (ADH). The AKRs are of importance for their ability to produce industrially useful compounds including chiral secondary alcohols. The ADH family have traditionally been exploited for chiral alcohol production; the AKR family have currently been underexploited for chiral alcohol production and present the opportunity to search for novel oxidoreductases with properties and substrate specificities distinct from the ADH enzymes. The AKR studied here, from the hyperthermophilic bacteria Thermotoga maritima has been characterised with respect to its biochemical and structural properties, and its potential as a biocatalyst evaluated. This enzyme is the second example of a thermophilic AKR to have its three dimensional structure solved, the other also being from Thermot. maritima. The AKR studied exhibits high stability with respect to temperature and moderate amounts of organic solvents. A large preference for the reduction reaction compared to the oxidation reaction was found, which has previously been observed in other AKRs. The X-ray crystal structure was solved to 2.6Å resolution in the apo form. The final structure has three loop sections which were not located due to disorder within the crystal, which are expected to become ordered upon cofactor and substrate binding. A section of one of these missing loops was found to bind at the active site of the enzyme, with a glutamate occupying the site of substrate carbonyl binding. The formation of a dimer, increased helix-dipole stabilisation and long distance ion pair interactions all act to increase thermostability of the AKR with respect to its mesophilic homologues. The X-ray crystal structure of Escherichia coli bacterioferritin has also been solved to 1.9Å resolution, which was co-purified along with the recombinant AKR enzyme. This structure shows the symmetrical binding of a heme molecule on the local two-fold axis between subunits and the binding of two metal atoms to each subunit at the ferroxidase centre. These metal atoms have been identified as zinc by the anaylsis of the structure and X-ray data and confirmed by microPIXE experiments. For the first time the heme has been shown to be linked to the internal and external environments via a cluster of waters positioned above the heme molecule. This information has provided a greater insight into the function and mechanism of bacterioferritin.

Bacterioferritin, an iron storage protein having a 24-subunit quaternary structure, was used as a model for the study of host-guest interactions and guest encapsulation, making use of its spherical cage-like structure. A hexahistidine-affinity tag fused to the C-terminus of each bacterioferritin subunit was constructed. The C-terminus of each subunit points toward the inside of the cavity, while the N-terminus is exposed on the surface of the protein. The hexaHistag was able to form strong interactions with a nickel-nitrilotriacetic acid linked dye molecule (guest) and this interaction was used in attempts to develop a principle to control guest molecule encapsulation within the spherical cavity of the 24-mer bacterioferritin protein molecule. The procedure involved (1) subunit dissociation under acidic pH, (2) affinity controlled dye-Histag binding with exposed C-terminal hexahistidine residues and (3) reassociation of the subunits at neutral pH. The encapsulation conditions involving step 1 and 3 were studied preliminarily using laser light scattering to measure size (hydrodynamic radius) of the protein particle with apoferritin as a model system as it resembles the size and structure of bacterioferritin. In order to encapsulate guest molecules, the emptied shell of bacterioferritin was generated by site-directed mutagenesis resulting in ferroxidase- as well as heme-free bacterioferritin mutants (E18A/M52L/E94A), and these mutants were used to examine protein stability before conducting encapsulation experiments. However, wild-type bacterioferritin possessed highest stability in maintaining its multisubunit structure; hence, it was used for the encapsulation studies. It was found that 100% bacterioferritin with hexahistidine tag at the C-terminus, and a combination of 60% bacterioferritin with hexahistidine tag at the C-terminus and 40% bacterioferritin without hexahistidine tag at the C-terminus yielded similar amounts of encapsulated guest molecules. This suggested that all hexahistidine at the C-terminus were not equally available for dye molecule binding.

Bacterioferritin, an iron storage protein having a 24-subunit quaternary structure, was used as a model for the study of host-guest interactions and guest encapsulation, making use of its spherical cage-like structure. A hexahistidine-affinity tag fused to the C-terminus of each bacterioferritin subunit was constructed. The C-terminus of each subunit points toward the inside of the cavity, while the N-terminus is exposed on the surface of the protein. The hexaHistag was able to form strong interactions with a nickel-nitrilotriacetic acid linked dye molecule (guest) and this interaction was used in attempts to develop a principle to control guest molecule encapsulation within the spherical cavity of the 24-mer bacterioferritin protein molecule. The procedure involved (1) subunit dissociation under acidic pH, (2) affinity controlled dye-Histag binding with exposed C-terminal hexahistidine residues and (3) reassociation of the subunits at neutral pH. The encapsulation conditions involving step 1 and 3 were studied preliminarily using laser light scattering to measure size (hydrodynamic radius) of the protein particle with apoferritin as a model system as it resembles the size and structure of bacterioferritin. In order to encapsulate guest molecules, the emptied shell of bacterioferritin was generated by site-directed mutagenesis resulting in ferroxidase- as well as heme-free bacterioferritin mutants (E18A/M52L/E94A), and these mutants were used to examine protein stability before conducting encapsulation experiments. However, wild-type bacterioferritin possessed highest stability in maintaining its multisubunit structure; hence, it was used for the encapsulation studies. It was found that 100% bacterioferritin with hexahistidine tag at the C-terminus, and a combination of 60% bacterioferritin with hexahistidine tag at the C-terminus and 40% bacterioferritin without hexahistidine tag at the C-terminus yielded similar amounts of encapsulated guest molecules. This suggested that all hexahistidine at the C-terminus were not equally available for dye molecule binding.

A bactéria fitopatogênica Xylella fastidiosa é o agente etiológico da Clorose Variegada dos Citros (CVC), que causa perdas anuais estimadas em US$ 100 milhões no Brasil. Durante o processo infeccioso, a geração extracelular de espécies ativas de oxigênio é um dos principais mecanismos de defesa da planta contra o patógeno. Em contrapartida, para se defender do estresse oxidativo imposto pelo hospedeiro, os fitopatógenos possuem mecanismos de defesa que incluem enzimas antioxidantes, como as peroxirredoxinas, alquil hidroperóxido redutase subunidade C (AhpC) e proteína comigratória com bacterioferritina (Bcp). As peroxirredoxinas são proteínas que utilizam suas cisteínas ativas para catalisar a redução de hidroperóxidos. Por análise proteômica, os produtos dos genes ahpc e bcp foram identificados no extrato celular protéico de X. fastidiosa (Smolka e col., 2003). Com o intuito de caracterizar funcional e estruturalmente as proteínas AhpC e Bcp de X. fastidiosa, clonamos e expressamos seus respectivos genes em Escherichia coli e purificamos as proteínas por cromatografia de afinidade a níquel. As proteínas recombinantes apresentaram atividade dependente de tiól de redução de peróxido de hidrogênio e hidroperóxidos orgânicos. A atividade peroxidase da AhpC e Bcp são dependentes, respectivamente, de alquil hidroperóxido redutase subunidade F (AhpF) e do sistema tiorredoxina. Paradoxalmente, a flavoproteína AhpF possui atividade NAD(P)H oxidase, que resulta na produção de peróxido de hidrogênio. As constantes de segunda ordem da reação das proteínas com peróxido de hidrogênio (da ordem de 107 M-1.s-1), determinadas pelo ensaio de cinética competitiva com peroxidase de raiz forte, indicam que ambas possuem atividades peroxidase equivalentes às apresentadas por glutationa peroxidases dependentes de selênio e catalases, ao contrário do descrito na literatura. Por SDS-PAGE não-redutor e pela quantificação de cisteínas livres por DTNB, verificamos que as proteínas possuem mecanismos catalíticos distintos: AhpC é uma 2-Cys Prx típica (com formação de ponte dissulfeto intermolecular), enquanto Bcp é uma 2-Cys Prx atípica (com formação de ponte dissulfeto intramolecular). Para AhpC, a atividade catalítica envolve as cisteínas conservadas (Cys-47 e Cys-165), em contraste, apenas através de estudos de mutação sítio-dirigida e espectrometria de massas conseguimos identificar os resíduos de cisteínas envolvidos na atividade catalítica da Bcp (Cys-47 e Cys-83). A caracterização estrutural de AhpC por cromatografia de exclusão molecular e espalhamento dinâmico de luz mostram que a proteína nativa é um decâmero estável, independentemente do estado de oxidação de suas cisteínas. A caracterização da estrutura cristalográfica de Bcp C47S, inédita para 2-Cys Prx atípicas que possuem as cisteínas ativas separadas por 35 aminoácidos, indica que a proteína possui o enovelamento característico das peroxirredoxinas e que as cisteínas ativas estão localizadas a uma distância média de 12,4 Å. Baseado em dicroísmo circular, apresentamos dados que indicam que a aproximação das cisteínas deve envolver um significativo rearranjo estrutural, que provavelmente se inicia com a formação do intermediário ácido sulfênico na cisteína peroxidásica (Cys-47). Assim, conseguimos elucidar o papel catalítico dessas proteínas, bem como identificar seus sistemas redutores, obtendo informações que podem ser relevantes para o entendimento do mecanismo da patogenicidade da X. fastidiosa. Os resultados apresentados neste trabalho podem contribuir para o desenvolvimento de novas técnicas de controle de praga para a doença CVC em citrus e outras que envolvam a bactéria X. fastidiosa. / The phytopathogenic bacterium Xylella fastidiosa is the etiological agent of Citrus Variegated Chlorosis (CVC) that causes losses of about 100 millions dollars per year in Brazil. During infection, reactive oxygen species play a central role in plant pathogen defense. To survive under oxidative stress imposed by the host, microorganisms express antioxidant proteins, including the peroxiredoxins alkyl hydroperoxide reductase subunit C (AhpC) and bacterioferritin comigratory protein (Bcp). Peroxiredoxins are peroxidases, which rely on an activated cysteine residue to catalyze the reduction of hydroperoxides. By proteome analysis, Smolka et al. (2003) identified the products of ahpc and bcp genes present in whole cell extract of X. fastidiosa. To characterize the function and structure of AhpC and Bcp protein, their genes were cloned in Escherichia coli and the corresponding proteins purified by nickel affinity chromatography. Recombinant proteins presented thiol-dependent peroxidase activity against hydrogen peroxide and organic hydroperoxides. AhpC and Bcp peroxidase activities are dependent on alkyl hydroperoxide reductase subunit F (AhpF), and on thioredoxin system, respectively. Paradoxically, AhpF flavoenzyme possesses hydrogen peroxide-forming oxidase activity. Contrary to classical assumptions, competitive kinetics employing horseradish peroxidase assays showed that the second-order rate constants of AhpC and Bcp reaction with hydrogen peroxide are in the order of 107 M-1.s-1, as fast as the activity of selenium-dependent glutathione peroxidases and catalases. Non-reducing SDS-PAGE and cysteine quantification using DTNB indicated different peroxidasic mechanisms: AhpC is a typical 2-Cys peroxiredoxin (with intermolecular disulfide bond formation), while Bcp is an atypical 2-Cys peroxiredoxin (with intramolecular disulfide bond formation). In contrast to the well-conserved AhpC cysteines responsible for the peroxidase activity (Cys-47 and Cys-165), only through site-specific mutagenesis and mass spectrometry we could identified the cysteine residues involved in the Bcp peroxidase activity (Cys-47 and Cys-83). Structural characterization by size exclusion chromatography and dynamic light scattering revealed that AhpC native protein forms stable and redox state independent decamers. The crystal structure of Bcp C47S, the first 2-Cys Prx with a 35-residue between the active cysteines ever characterized, shows that protein contains the common fold of peroxiredoxins and that active cysteines lies ~12.4 Å away one from the other. Based on circular dichroism, we presented data indicating that disulfide bond formation may require significant conformational changes, which probably is triggered by the peroxidatic cysteine oxidation to sulfenic acid. In conclusion, we elucidated the catalytic mechanisms and reduction systems of AhpC and Bcp proteins that may help to understand the pathogenicity mechanism of X. fastidiosa. These results can contribute to the development of plague control methods against X. fastidiosa.

A bactéria fitopatogênica Xylella fastidiosa é o agente etiológico da Clorose Variegada dos Citros (CVC), que causa perdas anuais estimadas em US$ 100 milhões no Brasil. Durante o processo infeccioso, a geração extracelular de espécies ativas de oxigênio é um dos principais mecanismos de defesa da planta contra o patógeno. Em contrapartida, para se defender do estresse oxidativo imposto pelo hospedeiro, os fitopatógenos possuem mecanismos de defesa que incluem enzimas antioxidantes, como as peroxirredoxinas, alquil hidroperóxido redutase subunidade C (AhpC) e proteína comigratória com bacterioferritina (Bcp). As peroxirredoxinas são proteínas que utilizam suas cisteínas ativas para catalisar a redução de hidroperóxidos. Por análise proteômica, os produtos dos genes ahpc e bcp foram identificados no extrato celular protéico de X. fastidiosa (Smolka e col., 2003). Com o intuito de caracterizar funcional e estruturalmente as proteínas AhpC e Bcp de X. fastidiosa, clonamos e expressamos seus respectivos genes em Escherichia coli e purificamos as proteínas por cromatografia de afinidade a níquel. As proteínas recombinantes apresentaram atividade dependente de tiól de redução de peróxido de hidrogênio e hidroperóxidos orgânicos. A atividade peroxidase da AhpC e Bcp são dependentes, respectivamente, de alquil hidroperóxido redutase subunidade F (AhpF) e do sistema tiorredoxina. Paradoxalmente, a flavoproteína AhpF possui atividade NAD(P)H oxidase, que resulta na produção de peróxido de hidrogênio. As constantes de segunda ordem da reação das proteínas com peróxido de hidrogênio (da ordem de 107 M-1.s-1), determinadas pelo ensaio de cinética competitiva com peroxidase de raiz forte, indicam que ambas possuem atividades peroxidase equivalentes às apresentadas por glutationa peroxidases dependentes de selênio e catalases, ao contrário do descrito na literatura. Por SDS-PAGE não-redutor e pela quantificação de cisteínas livres por DTNB, verificamos que as proteínas possuem mecanismos catalíticos distintos: AhpC é uma 2-Cys Prx típica (com formação de ponte dissulfeto intermolecular), enquanto Bcp é uma 2-Cys Prx atípica (com formação de ponte dissulfeto intramolecular). Para AhpC, a atividade catalítica envolve as cisteínas conservadas (Cys-47 e Cys-165), em contraste, apenas através de estudos de mutação sítio-dirigida e espectrometria de massas conseguimos identificar os resíduos de cisteínas envolvidos na atividade catalítica da Bcp (Cys-47 e Cys-83). A caracterização estrutural de AhpC por cromatografia de exclusão molecular e espalhamento dinâmico de luz mostram que a proteína nativa é um decâmero estável, independentemente do estado de oxidação de suas cisteínas. A caracterização da estrutura cristalográfica de Bcp C47S, inédita para 2-Cys Prx atípicas que possuem as cisteínas ativas separadas por 35 aminoácidos, indica que a proteína possui o enovelamento característico das peroxirredoxinas e que as cisteínas ativas estão localizadas a uma distância média de 12,4 Å. Baseado em dicroísmo circular, apresentamos dados que indicam que a aproximação das cisteínas deve envolver um significativo rearranjo estrutural, que provavelmente se inicia com a formação do intermediário ácido sulfênico na cisteína peroxidásica (Cys-47). Assim, conseguimos elucidar o papel catalítico dessas proteínas, bem como identificar seus sistemas redutores, obtendo informações que podem ser relevantes para o entendimento do mecanismo da patogenicidade da X. fastidiosa. Os resultados apresentados neste trabalho podem contribuir para o desenvolvimento de novas técnicas de controle de praga para a doença CVC em citrus e outras que envolvam a bactéria X. fastidiosa. / The phytopathogenic bacterium Xylella fastidiosa is the etiological agent of Citrus Variegated Chlorosis (CVC) that causes losses of about 100 millions dollars per year in Brazil. During infection, reactive oxygen species play a central role in plant pathogen defense. To survive under oxidative stress imposed by the host, microorganisms express antioxidant proteins, including the peroxiredoxins alkyl hydroperoxide reductase subunit C (AhpC) and bacterioferritin comigratory protein (Bcp). Peroxiredoxins are peroxidases, which rely on an activated cysteine residue to catalyze the reduction of hydroperoxides. By proteome analysis, Smolka et al. (2003) identified the products of ahpc and bcp genes present in whole cell extract of X. fastidiosa. To characterize the function and structure of AhpC and Bcp protein, their genes were cloned in Escherichia coli and the corresponding proteins purified by nickel affinity chromatography. Recombinant proteins presented thiol-dependent peroxidase activity against hydrogen peroxide and organic hydroperoxides. AhpC and Bcp peroxidase activities are dependent on alkyl hydroperoxide reductase subunit F (AhpF), and on thioredoxin system, respectively. Paradoxically, AhpF flavoenzyme possesses hydrogen peroxide-forming oxidase activity. Contrary to classical assumptions, competitive kinetics employing horseradish peroxidase assays showed that the second-order rate constants of AhpC and Bcp reaction with hydrogen peroxide are in the order of 107 M-1.s-1, as fast as the activity of selenium-dependent glutathione peroxidases and catalases. Non-reducing SDS-PAGE and cysteine quantification using DTNB indicated different peroxidasic mechanisms: AhpC is a typical 2-Cys peroxiredoxin (with intermolecular disulfide bond formation), while Bcp is an atypical 2-Cys peroxiredoxin (with intramolecular disulfide bond formation). In contrast to the well-conserved AhpC cysteines responsible for the peroxidase activity (Cys-47 and Cys-165), only through site-specific mutagenesis and mass spectrometry we could identified the cysteine residues involved in the Bcp peroxidase activity (Cys-47 and Cys-83). Structural characterization by size exclusion chromatography and dynamic light scattering revealed that AhpC native protein forms stable and redox state independent decamers. The crystal structure of Bcp C47S, the first 2-Cys Prx with a 35-residue between the active cysteines ever characterized, shows that protein contains the common fold of peroxiredoxins and that active cysteines lies ~12.4 Å away one from the other. Based on circular dichroism, we presented data indicating that disulfide bond formation may require significant conformational changes, which probably is triggered by the peroxidatic cysteine oxidation to sulfenic acid. In conclusion, we elucidated the catalytic mechanisms and reduction systems of AhpC and Bcp proteins that may help to understand the pathogenicity mechanism of X. fastidiosa. These results can contribute to the development of plague control methods against X. fastidiosa.