MRDV / Institute for Rural Development / This study originated from the realisation that non-conventional crops such as Bambara nuts (Vigna subterranea) were becoming increasingly important in addressing food insecurity and malnutrition in the smallholder farming sector of countries in sub-Saharan Africa. Moreover, some of the smallholder crop farmers were observed to be continuing to rely on indigenous techniques to forecast rainfall and adapt agricultural activities in response to climate variability. However, it was not clear how climate change influenced the productivity of V. subterranea. Nor were the indigenous approaches that farmers used to forecast rainfall on this phenomenon well understood. Thus, a study was carried out to identify and document indigenous approaches that smallholder farmers used to forecast rainfall and adaptation practices relating to V. subterranea. The study was conducted in Xigalo and Lambani villages located in Collins Chabane Local Municipality of Vhembe District in Limpopo Province. The villages served as case study areas that helped to compare the native approaches that the Va-Tsonga and Vha-Venda used to forecast rainfall in the course of producing V. subterranea. A multi-case study research design, which was exploratory in nature was adopted. Convenience and snowball sampling techniques were used to identify and select respondents. The triangulation of participatory methods, techniques and tools guided the collection of qualitative data. Key informant interviews, learning circles, photovoice, one-on-one interviews and narrative inquiry techniques were applied during data collection. Smallholder farmers and the elderly members of communities were the respondents. Nine key informants in Xigalo and Lambani villages were interviewed. One retired and two currently serving government extension officers were also interviewed. Separate learning circles comprising mainly elderly men and women were also organised. Each learning circle was made up of 7-10 respondents. Atlas.ti version 7.5.7 software was used to analyse the qualitative data following the thematic content analysis approach. It was observed that the respondents were aware of climate variability events that affected V. subterranea. Some of the events were shifts in rainfall patterns, heavy rainfall, extreme temperatures, scarcity of summer rainfall, the disappearance of lunar signs and the seasonal cycle variations. Eighteen types of phenological signs used to predict rainfall were identified. The most common signs included the Milky Way Galaxy of stars, musical sounds of birds and frogs, moon shapes, cumulus and cumulonimbus cloud types. A close relationship between conservation of V. subterranea and adaptation strategies was said to exist. It was evident that most commonly used conservation strategies were rainmaking ceremonies, planting after the summer rains, hoeing weeds, soaking seeds before planting, hilling or earthing up around the base of the V. subterranea plant and storing the legumes in traditional vessels and sacks. The need for integrating western scientific knowledge with native forecasts to inform the production of V. subterranea was uncovered. In addition to this, the needs of Tsonga and Venda communities should inform local policy interventions. Lastly, adaptation strategies that address food insecurity with V. subterranea being part of the agro-ecosystem deserve attention in scientific investigation and policymaking. / NRF