The concepts and definitions of housing affordability vary depending on the economic and social contexts of specific countries. However, irrespective of the context, housing affordability is not only influenced by the market conditions, but also by the prevailing policy environment, among other social and economic factors. The impact of the supply-side instruments of the policy environment, such as the regulatory regime, on the provision of affordable housing and housing affordability has been widely studied mainly in the context of developed or richer developing countries where strong regulatory and institutional frameworks exist. Little has been done in the context of developing countries with weak regulatory and institutional frameworks. This dissertation pioneers a study of this kind in the context of Bangladesh. It aims to investigate the housing affordability problems of the middle-income groups in Dhaka and to identify the underlying supply-side causes of the policy environment. A qualitative approach is adopted for this research. The social constructivist paradigm combined with the interpretive type of narration has been engaged as the research strategy. Both the ratio and residual-income based approaches of measuring housing affordability are used. Working definitions of housing affordability and income groups are also developed. Primary and secondary data were collected using various approaches such as document analysis, questionnaire survey and interviews. This study reveals that the formal housing market in Dhaka failed to provide affordable housing for the middle-income groups. The price-to-income ratio in Dhaka is one of the highest among the major South Asian cities. The middle-income groups struggle to maintain a minimum standard of living and largely rely on rental housing. However, rents are also unaffordable to them and Dhaka has the highest rent-to-income ratio in Asia. The housing units in the informal settlements could be affordable to them, but their social status inhibits them from living in these settlements. The regulatory and infrastructure development regimes are found to be non-enabling. Existing land-use regulations encourage land hoarding and land value speculation. Despite the weak urban growth control, the land price is very high and the land-supply fails to meet the demand. Further, the planning permission processes for residential development are significant time and cost inflators. Investment on infrastructure is not targeted to facilitate residential land supply. Serviced residential land is expensive due to the short supply of residential infrastructures. Institutionally, the non-participatory mode of governance, absence of a clear line of authority, and poor human resources capacities of the related government organizations are the main underlying causes of the non-enabling performance of supply-side regimes. This study recommends pro-active government initiatives to strengthen the enabling functions of the regulatory regimes. Utilization of planning tools such as planning incentives and mandatory contributions of affordable housing in private housing projects are recommended. Infrastructure investment targeting at facilitating residential land supply is suggested. Institutional restructuring and the establishment of a housing data bank are also recommended. This study enriches the literature related to the impact of the policy environment on housing by widening the debate to cover the developing countries. / published_or_final_version / Urban Planning and Design / Doctoral / Doctor of Philosophy

published_or_final_version / Urban Design / Master / Master of Urban Design

This study examines the nature of the state in Bangladesh and its role in the economic development of the country until President Ziaur Rahman's assassination in 1981. Two basic questions have been of central importance: who controlled the apparatus of the state? and was the state "relatively autonomous" or simply an instrument of the dominant class(es)? The study argues that the state in post-colonial Bangladesh has not, contrary to Hamza Alavi's position, followed a single uniform direction. Initially, nationalist political leaders, mostly belonging to the intermediate class, controlled the state apparatus, which can therefore be described as an "intermediate state." However, subsequently, both "overdevelopment of the bureaucracy" and "socio-political dynamics" enabled the civil-military bureaucracy to assert dominance over the state apparatus, which can consequently be characterized as an "administrative state." Since the nature of the state has varied, it has played a changing role--autonomous or instrumental--in the economic development of Bangladesh, with the "intermediate state" working as an instrument of the dominant intermediate class and the "administrative state" playing a "relatively autonomous" role.

Self-recruiting species (SRS) are the aquatic animals that do not require repeated stocking in farmer managed aquatic systems (FMAS) and can be of indigenous or exotic origin (Little, 2002). Current concept of conventional aquaculture greatly underestimated the contribution of SRS to the livelihoods and particularly nutritional security of the poor. The present study examines the role of SRS in poverty focused aquaculture. The role of SRS in aquaculture was evaluated from the perspective of people dependent on them in terms of well-being, gender, resource access and broader livelihoods in the northwest and south-central region of Bangladesh. SRS management practices, already an existing component of aquaculture in FMAS, were explored to define sustainable management strategies that benefited poor. The thesis uses a livelihoods framework within a methodological context of participatory action research at household, community and national level. The process begins with a Participatory Community Appraisal (PCA) in 18 communities with 360 participants which then directs further investigation at household level through survey, longitudinal study farmer and farmer participatory action research over a systematic 4 year investigation from 2001 to 2004. At the PCA stage, the context of livelihoods, importance of popular aquatic animals and their different sources were examined. The more frequently mentioned and higher scored SRS by the communities were Clarias batrachus, Anabas testudineus, Macrobrachium sp., Puntius sp., Heteropneustes fossilis, Channa punctatus, Mystus vittatus, Amblypharyngodon mola, Channa striata, Macrognathus puncalus. The sources of these aquatic animals provided a better understanding of the diverse typology of farmer managed aquatic systems (FMAS) and showed the importance of both FMAS and open systems to sustain a self-supporting population of aquatic animals for nutritional security of the poor. Rice and other crop farming, fish culture, livestock and poultry rearing, service and business were found to be common occupations among better off households where as share-cropping, petty trade, fishing, selling agricultural and non-agricultural labour were of greater importance to poorer households. Both gender and well-being affected livelihoods with significant differences in involvement of the better off and poorer. PCA findings were later validated at a national level stakeholder workshop with 138 government, non-government officials, researchers and academics which established a broader understanding of the prospects and constraints of SRS culture and conservation. The baseline survey with 119 households further examined the characteristics and access of key farmers to managed aquatic systems, livelihood assets, vulnerability and the behaviours of households managing SRS. Access to FMAS and SRS are of much greater importance to poorer than to the rich. Positive, negative and neutral attitudes towards managing SRS were not significantly affected by well-being. Access to appropriate types of FMAS, SRS management knowledge, traditional taste, greater involvement in non-farm activities, family need were all associated with the SRS positive attitude. Results from the year round longitudinal study with 50 households focused on the seasonal dynamics of food consumption and its connection to livelihoods in terms of sources, income and expenditure. Aquatic animals are the 3rd most important contributor to the rural Bangladeshi diet after cereal and vegetables by weight and the 2nd most important contributor by price after cereal. FMASs are important source of aquatic animals compared to other sources such as open system, market and given sources (free from neighbours and relatives). SRS were accounts for 52% of the total aquatic animal consumption. Even among some very low income vulnerable groups such as day labourers and rickshaw pullers, SRS was found important in their diet. Poorer households rely significantly more on SRS than richer households. The total amount of SRS consumed by thenhosueholds over the year was strongly correlated with total number of SRS species consumed per year and further emphasised the significance of maintaining biodiversity. The pre monsoon dry period as April and May were low consumption periods in both zones. Rainy and post rainy season July to October were the peak consumption months in the northwest zone and June to November in south-central zone. The year round farmer participatory trial with 29 farmers confirmed the value of SRS within culture systems with lack of any major conflicts in the husbandry of non-stocked species with popular carps in the system which, in the past regarded as weed fish and have been generally excluded from formal aquaculture. The study found a range of species of both commercial and non-commercial SRS have greater significance to the poor than to the richer households particularly in terms of household consumption, income and social value. More deliberate attention towards avoidance of negative actions towards SRS in aquaculture in the lean season may also expand niche benefits for non-pond owners and vulnerable social groups such as fishers. Current investigations also revealed the complementarities of stocked fish particularly during dry months when SRS are less available. In spite of the poor having limited access to ponds, the seasonal scarcity of water in dry seasons and habitat degradation, SRS remains an important and valuable food item for the poor in low income vegetable scarce months. The study recommends future emphasis on the management and conservation of both commercial and non-commercial (mainly for consumption) SRS in FMAS particularly during the lean season and also to maintain the integrity of the permeable nature of FMAS and its linkage with the broader open systems for the sustained availability of such self-recruiting population. Finally the study greatly influenced the perception of utilising both stocked and non-stocked species in formal aquaculture. It is necessary to take urgent steps to avoid negative actions to damage SRS and formulate an integrated approach to water, agriculture, environment and fisheries management to sustain them for current and future nutritional and livelihoods security of the poor.

This study describes the delineation of appropriate sites for aquaculture using remote sensing, GPS and GIS. A 1996 composite Landsat TM image covering the south-western part of Bangladesh was used to identify water bodies, the extent of brackish water and associated land use features in the image. The Remote Sensing image was complemented by digitised secondary data from a range of sources, including hard copy maps to produce a GIS database which included environmental layers such as water bodies, rivers, soils, land use, temperature, rainfall, salinity and pH. The database also included infrastructural issues, such as roads, railways, processing plants, towns and cities. A series of GIS models were developed in order to identify and prioritise the most suitable areas for freshwater prawn, tilapia and carp and brackish water shrimp and crab farming. A range of scenarios for land allocations were used to develop a series of resource use models linked to likely production outcomes. Global warming and accelerated sea level rise is considered in the study area with different sea level rise scenarios of 50, 100, 150 and 200cm. The consequence of land losses and displacement of the population from the area in different situations is discussed. The economic characteristics of shrimp farming and alternative land uses in the Khulna region were also considered. Five land use options were studied based on economic output and job potential. Among these, brackish water shrimp and crab culture, moderately saline tolerant tilapia and prawn culture, fresh water carp culture and traditional rice production systems, and fresh water prawn culture performed best followed by brackish water shrimp and crab culture. This study showed the extent of potential for aquaculture in the Khulna region and further demonstrates the usefulness of GIS as an aquaculture-planning tool. Model programming was also found to be very useful tool to enabling regenerating of multiple scenarios very quickly. Overall, GIS modelling associated with remote sensing has great potential for informed decision-making in aquatic production systems and optimising management of natural resources in a region where they are already under considerable pressure. The implications for use of these systems in reducing land use conflict and sector planning for the region are discussed.

Bibliography: leaves 453-487. / xxiii, 487 leaves : ill. map ; 30 cm. / Title page, contents and abstract only. The complete thesis in print form is available from the University Library. / Marginal farm families face a never-ending risk of loss of land followed by a further weakening of their livelihood-base. This thesis develops a methodology by which the vulnerable can be identified, characterises their existing and potential production systems and explores necessary shifts in approach by State and non-government organisations that will not only reduce vulnerability but empower marginal farm families. / Thesis (Ph.D.)--University of Adelaide, Dept. of Politics, 1997

Thesis (Ph.D.) -- University of Adelaide, Department of Geography, 1995. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 331-404).

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No / This is an analytical report for the Community Liaison Unit (CLU), 'Community Perceptions of Forced Marriage'. This report provides the context, explores the problems and the perceptions of the Pakistani and Bangladeshi communities of forced marriages. Therefore, this report represents a comprehensive and rigorous synthesis of existing research evidence combined with primary data collected specifically for the report.

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