This thesis discusses the effects of basal friction and basement configuration on the deformation of the fold-and-thrust belts in convergent zones. A series of analogue models were conducted with adjacent different basal configuration and frictional properties to observe and gain a better understanding of these basal effects and their interactions. The results from these side-by-side systematic models demonstrate that the kinematics and geometry of the deformation wedges are strongly influenced by the mechanical and geometrical basal effects. In these experiments, high accuracy laser scanner and digital camera were used to record the evolution of the surface topography of the deformed sand packs. Comparison between models with different basal friction shows that the basal friction plays a significant role on the propagation and topography of the deformation structures in aspects such as wedge height, taper angle, number of imbricates and deformation front. The models with a basal viscous material, which acts as low friction substrate, illustrates that the propagation of deformation above viscous material is faster and further than above the adjacent mechanically different frictional decollement. In the experiments with a moving plate under the part of the sand pack, the velocity discontinuity was introduced by either rigid, i.e. frontal edge of the metal plate, or deformable like distal end of the viscous materials. The results of these kinds of experiments, applicable to for example basement faults, salt decollements and tectonic underplating simulations, illustrate that the deformation localizes and develops continuously above the velocity discontinuities. Besides, the different rate and distance of the propagation of deformation fronts caused by different substrate distribution between the adjacent zones also lead to the formation of transpressive zones at the boundary of these adjacent domains with different basal friction/configurations.

This thesis aims to better understand the relationships between basal water pressure, friction, and sliding mechanisms at ice sheet scales. In particular, it develops a new subglacial hydrology model (Hydro) to explicitly predict water pressures in response to basal water production and water injection from the surface. Recent research suggests that the Greenland ice sheet (gis) is losing a substantial volume of ice through dynamic thinning. This process must be modelled to accurately assess the contribution of the gis to sea-level rise in future warming scenarios. A key control on dynamic thinning is the presence of water at the ice-bed interface; Zwally et al. (2002) highlight the importance of supraglacial lakes' impact on basal ice dynamics, a process now con rmed by Das et al. (2008) and Shepherd et al. (2009). Many studies focus on the effects of surface meltwater reaching the bed of the gis but the underlying processes are often ignored. Geothermal, strain, and frictional melting, which evolves with basal hydrology, provide the background basal pressure profile that surface meltwater perturbates. Without understanding how these heat terms affect the background profile it is difficult to define basal boundary conditions in models and therefore difficult to model the dynamic response of the gis to surface melting. Hydro tracks subglacial water pressures and the evolution of efficient drainage networks. Coupled with the existing 3D thermomechanical ice sheet model Glimmer, model outputs include effective pressure N and the efficient hydraulic area. Defining frictional heat flux and basal traction as functions of N allow the modelling of seasonal dynamic response to randomly draining supraglacial lakes. Key results are that frictional heat flux, as a function of N, caps potential runaway feedback mechanisms and that water converges in topographic troughs under Greenland's outlet glaciers. This leads to a background profile with low N under outlet glaciers. Therefore, outlet glaciers show a muted dynamic speedup to the seasonal surface signal reaching the bed. Land-terminating ice does not tend to have subglacial troughs and so has higher background N and consequently a larger seasonal response. This, coupled with effects of ice rheology, can explain the hitherto puzzling lack of observed seasonal velocity change on Jakobshavn Isbræ and other outlet glaciers.

A two dimensional continuous numerical model based on Discrete Element Method is used to investigate the behaviour of accretionary wedges with different basal frictions. The models are based on elastic-plastic, brittle material and computational granular dynamics, and several characteristics of the influence of the basal friction are analysed. The model results illustrate that the wedge’s deformation and geometry, for example, fracture geometry, the compression force, area loss, displacement, height and length of the accretionary wedge etc., are strongly influenced by the basal friction. In general, the resulting wedge grows steeper, shorter  and higher, and the compression force is larger when shortened  above a larger friction basement.  Especially, when there is no basal friction, several symmetrical wedges will distribute symmetrically in the domain. The distribution of the internal stress when a new accretionary prime is forming is also studied. The results illustrate that when the stress in a certain zone is larger than a critical number, a new thrust will form there.

<p>This thesis uses geodetic satellite data to measure present-day crustal deformation in the Zagros fold-thrust belt (SW Iran). Geodetic-type measurements are also used in down-scaled models that simulate the surface deformations seen in convergent settings like the Zagros fold-thrust belt.</p><p>Global Positioning System (GPS) measurements of three surveys between 1998 and 2001 indicate 9 ± 3 mm/yr and 5 ± 3 mm/yr shortening across the SE and NW Zagros respectively. GPS results show that in addition to the different rates and directions of shortening on either side of the NS trending Kazerun fault, local along-belt extension occurs to the east. </p><p>Differential SAR interferograms of ERS1 & 2 images between 1992 and 1999 detect 8 ± 4 mm/yr uplift rate across a newly recognized fault in SW Qeshm Island. This can be attributed to a steep imbricate thrust that may still represent the local Zagros deformation front.</p><p>The salt diapirs in the Zagros rise from a source layer that acts as a low-frictional decollement that decouples the deformation of the cover sediments from their basement in the eastern Zagros whereas the cover to the west deforms above a high-friction decollement. Physical models were prepared to simulate cover deformation in the Zagros by shortening a sand pack above adjacent high- and low-frictional decollements (represented by a ductile layer). The strain distributions differed above the two types of decollements; it was more heterogeneous above the salt where local extension in the shortening direction was dominant. A separate work also investigated systematically the role of basal friction on cover deformation in convergent settings. Accurate height measurements of the model surface by laser-scanner indicated a deformation front more distal than usual, particularly in the low-basal frictional models. The volume reduction in our shortened sand models correlated directly with their basal friction.</p>

This thesis uses geodetic satellite data to measure present-day crustal deformation in the Zagros fold-thrust belt (SW Iran). Geodetic-type measurements are also used in down-scaled models that simulate the surface deformations seen in convergent settings like the Zagros fold-thrust belt. Global Positioning System (GPS) measurements of three surveys between 1998 and 2001 indicate 9 ± 3 mm/yr and 5 ± 3 mm/yr shortening across the SE and NW Zagros respectively. GPS results show that in addition to the different rates and directions of shortening on either side of the NS trending Kazerun fault, local along-belt extension occurs to the east. Differential SAR interferograms of ERS1 &amp; 2 images between 1992 and 1999 detect 8 ± 4 mm/yr uplift rate across a newly recognized fault in SW Qeshm Island. This can be attributed to a steep imbricate thrust that may still represent the local Zagros deformation front. The salt diapirs in the Zagros rise from a source layer that acts as a low-frictional decollement that decouples the deformation of the cover sediments from their basement in the eastern Zagros whereas the cover to the west deforms above a high-friction decollement. Physical models were prepared to simulate cover deformation in the Zagros by shortening a sand pack above adjacent high- and low-frictional decollements (represented by a ductile layer). The strain distributions differed above the two types of decollements; it was more heterogeneous above the salt where local extension in the shortening direction was dominant. A separate work also investigated systematically the role of basal friction on cover deformation in convergent settings. Accurate height measurements of the model surface by laser-scanner indicated a deformation front more distal than usual, particularly in the low-basal frictional models. The volume reduction in our shortened sand models correlated directly with their basal friction.

La calotte polaire antarctique représente le plus gros contributeur potentiel à l'élévation future du niveau des mers. On estime que 80 % du volume de glace déchargée de la calotte vers l'océan transite par les vastes plateformes flottantes qui bordent près de 45 % de la côte du continent. En vertu du principe d'Archimède, la contribution de la glace au niveau des mers est comptabilisée aussitôt que celle-ci franchit la ligne d'échouage qui marque la limite au delà de laquelle la glace posée sur le socle se met à flotter sur l'océan. Par conséquent, une modélisation réaliste de la dynamique de la ligne d'échouage est capitale pour obtenir des projections de l'évolution future du niveau des mers dignes de confiance. Cette dynamique est affectée par un certain nombre de processus physiques mal représentés dans les modèles d'écoulement glaciaire actuels. Cette thèse s'intéresse à deux de ces processus : l'endommagement de la glace d'une part et le frottement basal en lien avec l'hydrologie sous-glaciaire d'autre part.L'endommagement caractérise la dégradation des propriétés mécaniques de la glace due à la présence de fractures et crevasses telles qu'on les observe communément à la surface des glaciers. Cet endommagement rétroagit sur l'écoulement en réduisant la viscosité de la glace. La loi d'évolution de l'endommagement fait intervenir une équation d'advection pure dont la résolution numérique nécessite l'adoption de méthodes de stabilisation. Nous montrons que, pour des maillages associés à des temps de calcul acceptables, la dynamique de la ligne d'échouage est sensible au choix de cette méthode, ce qui complique nettement la modélisation des processus d'endommagement.Le frottement basal est représenté au sein des modèles par l'intermédiaire de lois de frottement qui visent à expliciter le lien entre vitesses basales et contraintes de cisaillement basales. Différentes formulations de ces lois ont été proposées au cours des dernières décennies sur la base d'arguments théoriques. Certaines d'entre elles intègrent explicitement l'effet de la pression de l'eau présente au sein du réseau de drainage sous-glaciaire, connue pour favoriser le mouvement basal. Malheureusement, les échelles spatiales et temporelles mises en jeu en glaciologie empêchent la validation in situ de ces différentes formulations et les modèles grande échelle optent habituellement pour la plus simple d'entre elles, la loi de Weertman. L'effet de la pression de l'eau sous-glaciaire sur le frottement basal est alors pris en compte de manière implicite via un coefficient de frottement dont la distribution est évaluée à l'aide de méthodes inverses. Faute de contrainte sur l'évolution temporelle de cette distribution, celle-ci est généralement maintenue stationnaire et une discontinuité peu réaliste du frottement apparaît à la ligne d'échouage dès lors qu'elle recule. Dans un premier temps, nous montrons que la dynamique de la ligne d'échouage modélisée est sensible à la manière dont cette discontinuité est traitée numériquement. Dans un second temps, nous mettons en évidence sur un cas synthétique que la prise en compte explicite de l'action de la pression de l'eau sous-glaciaire sur le frottement basal conduit à un phénomène de rétroactions positives qui induit des pertes de masse accrues. Enfin, nous étendons ces conclusions à un cas réel, le bassin d'Amundsen en Antarctique de l'Ouest, en montrant une sensibilité importante de la dynamique de la ligne d'échouage au choix de la loi de frottement ainsi qu'aux valeurs attribuées à certains paramètres intervenant au sein des lois testées. / The Antartic ice sheet represents the world's largest potential contributor to sea level rise. Over 80 % of Antarctica's grounded ice drains through its fringing ice shelves which surround close to 45 % of the continent's shore. Because of Archimède' principle, the contribution of the ice to sea level is accounted for as soon as it flows through the grounding line, which defines the limit beyond which ice grounded on the bedrock starts floating on the ocean. Therefore, realistic modelling of grounding line dynamics is crucial to produce trustworthy projections of future sea level rise. This dynamics is affected by a number of physical processes, some of which are not properly represented in current ice flow models. This PhD thesis focuses on two of these processes: damage of ice on the one hand and basal friction related to basal hydrology on the other hand.Damage accounts for the degradation of ice mechanical properties due to the presence of fractures and crevasses, commonly observed at the surface of glaciers. Damage affects ice flow by lowering ice viscosity. The evolution of damage is governed by a pure advection equation, the numerical resolution of which requires stabilisation methods. We show that, for numerical resolutions associated to acceptable calculation times, grounding line dynamics is sensitive to the choice of this method, which seriously complicates the modelling of damage processes.Ice flow models account for basal friction through the use of friction laws, i.e. the mathematical relationship between basal drag and sliding velocities. Several formulations of these laws have been proposed over the last decades based on theoretical arguments. Some of these formulations explicitly include the effect of basal water which is present in the subglacial drainage system and the pressure of which eases basal motion. Unfortunately, the temporal and spatial scales at stake in glaciology make it impossible to validate these different formulations in situ and large-scale ice flow models usually make use of the simplest one, the Weertman law. The effect of basal water pressure is then accounted for in an implicit fashion via a friction coefficient, the spatial distribution of which is inferred through the use of inverse methods. Because the temporal evolution of this coefficient is poorly constrained, it is usual to keep it stationary. This lead to an unphysical discontinuity of friction at the grounding line when the latter retreats. First of all, we show that grounding line dynamics is sensitive to the way this discontinuity is treated numerically. Then, we demonstrate on a synthetic case that the fact of explicitly accounting for the effect of basal water pressure on basal friction leads to positive feedback phenomeno which implies larger ice losses. Finally, these conclusions are extended to a real case, the Amundsen basin in West Antarctica, by showing a significant sensitivity of grounding line dynamics to the chosen friction law as well as to the values given to some of the parameters involved in the tested friction laws.