Increasing nitrate concentration in ground water from improper disposal of sewage and excessive use of fertilizers is deleterious to human health as ingestion of nitrate contaminated water can cause methaemoglobinemia in infants and possibly cancer in adults. The permissible limit for nitrate in potable water is 45 mg/L. Unacceptable levels of nitrate in groundwater is an important environmental issue as nearly 80 % of Indian rural population depends on groundwater as source of drinking water. Though numerous technologies such as reverse osmosis, ion exchange, electro-dialysis, permeable reactive barriers using zero-valent iron exists, nitrate removal from water using affordable, sustainable technology, continues to be a challenging issue as nitrate ion is not amenable to precipitation or removable by mineral adsorbents. Tapping the denitrification potential of soil denitrifiers which are inherently available in the soil matrix is a possible sustainable approach to remove nitrate from contaminated drinking water. Insitu denitrification is a useful process to remove NO3–N from water and wastewater. In biological denitrification, nitrate ions function as terminal electron acceptor instead of oxygen; the carbon source serve as electron donor and the energy generated in the redox process is utilized for microbial cell growth and maintenance. In this process, microorganisms first reduce nitrate to nitrite and then produce nitric oxide, nitrous oxide, and nitrogen gas. The pathway for nitrate reduction can be written as: NO3-→ NO2-→ NO → N2O → N2. (i) Insitu denitrification process occurring in soil environments that utilizes indigenous soil microbes is the chosen technique for nitrate removal from drinking water in this thesis. As presence of clay in soil promotes bacterial activity, bentonite clay was mixed with natural sand and this mix, referred as bentonite enhanced sand (BES) acted as the habitat for the denitrifying bacteria. Nitrate reduction experiments were carried out in batch studies using laboratory prepared nitrate contaminated water spiked with ethanol; the batch studies examined the mechanisms, kinetics and parameters influencing the heterotrophic denitrification process. Optimum conditions for effective nitrate removal by sand and bentonite enhanced sand (BES) were evaluated. Heterotrophic denitrification reactors were constructed with sand and BES as porous media and the efficiency of these reactors in removing nitrate from contaminated water was studied. Batch experiments were performed at 40°C with sand and bentonite enhanced sand specimens that were wetted with nutrient solution containing 22.6 mg of nitrate-nitrogen and ethanol to give C/N ratio of 3. The moist sand and BES specimens were incubated for periods ranging from 0 to 48 h. During nitrate reduction, nitrite ions were formed as intermediate by-product and were converted to gaseous nitrogen. There was little formation of ammonium ions in the soil–water extract during reduction of nitrate ions. Hence it was inferred that nitrate reduction occurred by denitrification than through dissimilatory nitrate reduction to ammonium (DNRA). The reduction in nitrate concentration with time was fitted into rate equations and was observed to follow first order kinetics with a rate constant of 0.118 h-1 at 40°C. Results of batch studies also showed that the first order rate constant for nitrate reduction decreased to 5.3x10-2 h-1 for sand and 4.3 x10-2 h-1 for bentonite-enhanced sand (BES) at 25°C. Changes in pH, redox potential and dissolved oxygen in the soil-solution extract served as indicators of nitrate reduction process. The nitrate reduction process was associated with increasing pH and decreasing redox potential. The oxygen depletion process followed first order kinetics with a rate constant of 0.26 h-1. From the first order rate equation of oxygen depletion process, the nitrate reduction lag time was computed to be 12.8 h for bentonite enhanced sand specimens. Ethanol added as an electron donor formed acetate ions as an intermediate by-product that converted to bicarbonate ions; one mole of nitrate reduction generated 1.93 moles of bicarbonate ions that increased the pH of the soil-solution extract. The alkaline pH of BES specimen (8.78) rendered it an ideal substrate for soil denitrification process. In addition, the ability of bentonite to stimulate respiration by maintaining adequate levels of pH for sustained bacterial growth and protected bacteria in its microsites against the effect of hypertonic osmotic pressures, promoting the rate of denitrification. Buffering capacity of bentonite was mainly due to high cation exchange capacity of the clay. The presence of small pores in BES specimens increased the water retention capacity that aided in quick onset of anaerobiosis within the soil microsites. The biochemical process of nitrate reduction was affected by physical parameters such as bentonite content, water content, and temperature and chemical parameters such as C/N ratio, initial nitrate concentration and presence of indigenous micro-organisms in contaminated water. The rate of nitrate reduction process progressively increased with bentonite content but the presence of bentonite retarded the conversion of nitrite ions to nitrogen gas, hence there was significant accumulation of nitrite ions with increase in bentonite content. The dependence of nitrate reduction process on water content was controlled by the degree of saturation of the soil specimens. The rate of nitrate reduction process increased with water content until the specimens were saturated. The threshold water content for nitrate reduction process for sand and bentonite enhanced sand specimens was observed to be 50 %. The rate of nitrate reduction linearly increased with C/N ratio till steady state was attained. The optimum C/N ratio was 3 for sand and bentonite enhanced sand specimens. The activation energy (Ea) for this biochemical reaction was 35.72 and 47.12 kJmol-1 for sand and BES specimen respectively. The temperature coefficient (Q10) is a measure of the rate of change of a biological or chemical system as a consequence of increasing the temperature by 10°C. The temperature coefficient of sand and BES specimen was 2.0 and 2.05 respectively in the 15–25°C range; the temperature coefficients of sand and BES specimens were 1.62 and 1.77 respectively in the 25–40°C range. The rate of nitrate reduction linearly decreased with increase in initial nitrate concentration. The biochemical process of nitrate reduction was unaffected by presence of co-ions and nutrients such as phosphorus but was influenced by presence of pathogenic bacteria. Since nitrate leaching from agricultural lands is the main source of nitrate contamination in ground water, batch experiments were performed to examine the role of vadose (unsaturated soil) zone in the nitrate mitigation by employing sand and BES specimens with varying degree of soil saturation and C/N ratio as controlling parameters. Batch studies with sand and BES specimens showed that the incubation period required to reduce nitrate concentrations below 45 mg/L (t45) strongly depends on degree of saturation when there is inadequate carbon source available to support denitrifying bacteria; once optimum C/N ratio is provided, the rate of denitrification becomes independent of degree of soil saturation. The theoretical lag time (lag time refers to the period that is required for denitrification to commence) for nitrate reduction for sand specimens at Sr= 81 and 90%, C/N ratio = 3 and temperature = 40ºC corresponded to 24.4 h and 23.1 h respectively. The lag time for BES specimens at Sr = 84 and 100%, C/N ratio = 3 and temperature = 40ºC corresponded to 13.9 h and 12.8 h respectively. Though the theoretically computed nitrate reduction lag time for BES specimens was nearly half of sand specimens, it was experimentally observed that nitrate reduction proceeds immediately without any lag phase in sand and BES specimens suggesting the simultaneous occurrence of anaerobic microsites in both. Denitrification soil columns (height = 5 cm and diameter = 8.2 cm) were constructed using sand and bentonite-enhanced sand as porous reactor media. The columns were permeated with nitrate spiked solutions (100 mg/L) and the outflow was monitored for various chemical parameters. The sand denitrification column (packing density of 1.3 Mg/m3) showed low nitrate removal efficiency because of low hydraulic residence time (1.32 h) and absence of carbon source. A modified sand denitrification column constructed with higher packing density (1.52 Mg/m3) and ethanol addition to the influent nitrate solution improved the reactor performance such that near complete nitrate removal was achieved after passage of 50 pore volumes. In comparison, the BES denitrification column achieved 87.3% nitrate removal after the passage of 28.9 pore volumes, corresponding to 86 h of operation of the BES reactor. This period represents the maturation period of bentonite enhanced sand bed containing 10 % bentonite content. Though nitrate reduction is favored by sand bed containing 10 % bentonite, the low flow rate (20-25 cm3/h) impedes its use for large scale removal of nitrate from drinking water. Hence new reactor was designed using lower bentonite content of 5 % that required maturation period of 9.6 h. The 5 and 10 % bentonite-enhanced sand reactors bed required shorter maturation period than sand reactor as presence of bentonite contributes to increase in hydraulic retention time of nitrate within the reactor. On continued operation of the BES reactors, reduction in flow rate from blocking of pores by microbial growth on soil particles and accumulation of gas molecules was observed that was resolved by backwashing the reactors.

Deep geological repository (DGR) for disposal of high-level radioactive waste (HLW) is designed to rely on successive superimposed barrier systems to isolate the waste from the biosphere. This multiple barrier system comprises the natural geological barrier provided by the repository host rock and its surrounding and an engineered barrier system (EBS). The EBS represents the synthetic, engineered materials placed within the natural barrier, comprising array of components such as waste form, waste canisters, buffer materials, backfill and seals. The buffer will enclose the waste canisters from all directions and act as a barrier between canisters and host rock of the repository. It is designed to stabilise the evolving thermo-hydro-mechanical-chemical stresses in the repository over a long period (nearly 1000 years) to retard radionuclides from reaching biosphere. Bentonite clay or bentonite-sand mix have been chosen as buffer materials in EBS design in various countries pursuing deep geological repository method. The bentonite buffer is the most important barrier among the other EBS components for a geological repository. The safety of repository depends to a large extent on proper functioning of buffer over a very long period of time during which it must remain physically, chemically and mineralogically stable. The long term stability of bentonite buffer depends on varying temperature and evolution of groundwater composition of host rocks in a complex way. The groundwater in the vicinity of deep crystalline rock is often characterized by high solute concentrations and the geotechnical engineering response of bentonite buffer could be affected by the dissolved salt concentration of the inflowing ground water. Also during the initial period, radiogenic heat produced in waste canisters would radiate into buffer and the heat generated would lead to drying and some shrinkage of bentonite buffer close to canister. This could alter the dry density, moisture content and in turn the hydro-mechanical properties of bentonite buffer in DGR conditions. India has variety of bentonite deposits in North-Western states of Rajasthan and Gujarat. Previous studies on Indian bentonites suggest that bentonite from Barmer district of Rajasthan (termed as Barmer-1 bentonite) is suitable to serve as buffer material in DGR conditions. Nuclear power agencies of several countries have identified suitable bentonites for use as buffer in DGR through laboratory experiments and large scale underground testing facilities. Physico-chemical, mineralogical and engineering properties of Kunigel VI, Kyungju, GMZ, FoCa clay, MX-80, FEBEX and Avonseal bentonites have been extensively studied by Japan, South Korea, China, Belgium, Sweden, Spain, Canada. It is hence essential to examine the suitability of Barmer-1 bentonite as potential buffer in DGR and compare its physico-chemical and hydromechanical properties with bentonite buffers identified by other countries. The significant factors that impact the long-term stability of bentonite buffer in DGR include variations in moisture content, dry density and pore water chemistry. With a view to address these issues, the hydromechanical response of 70 % Barmer-1 bentonite + 30 % river sand mix (termed bentonite enhanced sand, BES specimens) under varying moisture content, dry density and pore water salt concentration conditions have been examined. The broad scope of the work includes: 1) Characterise the physico-chemical and hydro-mechanical properties of Barmer-1 bentonite from Rajasthan, India and compare its properties with bentonite buffers reported in literature. 2) Examine the influence of variations in dissolved salt concentration (of infiltrating solution), dry density and moisture content of compacted BES specimens on their hydro-mechanical response; the hydro-mechanical properties include, swell pressure, soil water characteristic curve (SWCC), unsaturated hydraulic conductivity, moisture diffusivity and unconfined compression strength. Organization of thesis: After the first introductory chapter, a detailed review of literature is performed to highlight the need for detailed characterisation of physico-chemical and hydromechanical properties of Barmer-1 bentonite for its possible application in DGR in the Indian context. Further, existing literature on hydro-mechanical response of bentonite buffer to changes in physical (degree of saturation/moisture content, dry density) and physico-chemical (solute concentration in pore water) is reviewed to define the scope and objectives of the present thesis in Chapter 2. Chapter 3 presents a detailed experimental programme of the study. Chapter 4 characterises Barmer-1 bentonite for physico-chemical (cation exchange capacity, pore water salinity, exchangeable sodium percentage) and hydro-mechanical properties, such as, swell pressure, saturated permeability, soil water characteristic curve (SWCC) and unconfined compression strength. The properties of Barmer-1 bentonite are compared with bentonite buffers reported in literature and generalized equations for determining swell pressure and saturated permeability coefficient of bentonite buffers are arrived at. Chapter 5 describes a method to determine solute concentrations in the inter-lamellar and free-solutions of compacted BES (bentonite enhanced sand) specimens. The solute concentrations in micro and macro pore solutions are used to examine the role of osmotic flow on swell pressures developed by compacted BES specimens (dry density 1.50-2.00 Mg/m3) inundated with distilled water and NaCl solutions (1000-5000 mg/L). The number of hydration layers developed by the compacted BES specimens on inundation with salt solutions in constant volume swell pressure tests is controlled by cation hydration/osmotic flow. The cation hydration of specimens compacted to dry density of 2.00 Mg/m3 is mainly driven by matric suction prevailing in the clay microtructure as the number of hydration layers developed at wetting equilibrium are independent of the total dissolved solids (TDS) of the wetting solution. Consequently, the swell pressures of specimens compacted to 2.00 Mg/m3 were insensitive to the salt concentration of the inundating solution. The cation hydration of specimens compacted to dry density of 1.50 Mg/m3 is driven by both matric suction (prevailing in the clay micro-structure) and osmotic flow as the number of hydration layers developed at wetting equilibrium is sensitive to the TDS of the wetting solution. Expectedly, the swell pressures of specimens compacted to 1.50 Mg/m3 responded to changes in salt concentration of the inundating solution. The 1.75 Mg/m3 specimens show behaviour that is intermediate to the 1.50 and 2.00 Mg/m3 series specimens. Chapter 6 examines the influence of initial degree of saturation on swell pressures developed by the compacted BES specimens (dry density range: 1.40- 2.00 Mg/m3) on wetting with distilled water from micro-structural considerations. The micro-structure of the bentonite specimens are examined in the compacted and wetted states by performing X-ray diffraction measurements. The initial degree of saturation is varied by adding requisite amount of distilled water to the oven-dried BES mix and compacting the moist mixes to the desired density. The montmorillonite fraction in the BES specimens is responsible for moisture absorption during compaction and development of swell pressure in the constant volume oedometer tests. Consequently, it was considered reasonable to calculate degree of saturation based on EMDD (effective montmorillonite dry density) values and correlate the developed swell pressure values with degree of saturation of montmorillonite voids (Sr,MF). XRD measurements with compacted and wetted specimens demonstrated that if specimens of density series developed similar number of hydration layers on wetting under constant volume condition they exhibited similar swell pressures, as was the case for specimens belonging to 1.40 and 1.50 Mg/m3 series. With specimens belonging to 1.75 and 2.00 Mg/m3 series, greater number of hydration layers were developed by specimens that were less saturated initially (smaller initial Sr,MF) and consequently such specimens developed larger swell pressures. When specimens developed similar number of hydration layers in the wetted state, the compaction dry density determined the swell pressure. Chapter 7 examines the influence of salt concentration of infiltrating solution (sodium chloride concentration ranges from 1000- 5000 mg/L) on SWCC relations, unsaturated permeability and moisture diffusivity of compacted BES specimens. Analysis of the experimental and Brooks and Corey best fit plots revealed that infiltration of sodium chloride solutions had progressively lesser influence on the micro-structure and consequently on the SWCC relations with increase in dry density of the compacted specimens. The micro-structure and SWCC relations of specimens compacted to 1.50 Mg/m3 were most affected, specimens compacted to 1.75 Mg/m3 were less affected, while specimens compacted to 2.00 Mg/m3 were unaffected by infiltration of sodium chloride solutions. Variations in dry density of compacted bentonite impacts the pore space available for moisture flow, while, salinity of wetting fluid impacts the pore structure from associated physico-chemical changes in clay structure. Experimental results showed that the unsaturated permeability coefficient is insensitive to variations in dry density and solute concentration of wetting liquid, while, the effective hydraulic diffusivity is impacted by variations in these parameters. Chapter 8 summarises the major findings of the study.

Deep geological repository (DGR) for disposal of high-level radioactive waste (HLW) is designed to rely on successive superimposed barrier systems to isolate the waste from the biosphere. This multiple barrier system comprises the natural geological barrier provided by the repository host rock and its surrounding and an engineered barrier system (EBS). The EBS represents the synthetic, engineered materials placed within the natural barrier, comprising array of components such as waste form, waste canisters, buffer materials, backfill and seals. The buffer will enclose the waste canisters from all directions and act as a barrier between canisters and host rock of the repository. It is designed to stabilise the evolving thermo-hydro-mechanical-chemical stresses in the repository over a long period (nearly 1000 years) to retard radionuclides from reaching biosphere. Bentonite clay or bentonite-sand mix have been chosen as buffer materials in EBS design in various countries pursuing deep geological repository method. The bentonite buffer is the most important barrier among the other EBS components for a geological repository. The safety of repository depends to a large extent on proper functioning of buffer over a very long period of time during which it must remain physically, chemically and mineralogically stable. The long term stability of bentonite buffer depends on varying temperature and evolution of groundwater composition of host rocks in a complex way. The groundwater in the vicinity of deep crystalline rock is often characterized by high solute concentrations and the geotechnical engineering response of bentonite buffer could be affected by the dissolved salt concentration of the inflowing ground water. Also during the initial period, radiogenic heat produced in waste canisters would radiate into buffer and the heat generated would lead to drying and some shrinkage of bentonite buffer close to canister. This could alter the dry density, moisture content and in turn the hydro-mechanical properties of bentonite buffer in DGR conditions. India has variety of bentonite deposits in North-Western states of Rajasthan and Gujarat. Previous studies on Indian bentonites suggest that bentonite from Barmer district of Rajasthan (termed as Barmer-1 bentonite) is suitable to serve as buffer material in DGR conditions. Nuclear power agencies of several countries have identified suitable bentonites for use as buffer in DGR through laboratory experiments and large scale underground testing facilities. Physico-chemical, mineralogical and engineering properties of Kunigel VI, Kyungju, GMZ, FoCa clay, MX-80, FEBEX and Avonseal bentonites have been extensively studied by Japan, South Korea, China, Belgium, Sweden, Spain, Canada. It is hence essential to examine the suitability of Barmer-1 bentonite as potential buffer in DGR and compare its physico-chemical and hydromechanical properties with bentonite buffers identified by other countries. The significant factors that impact the long-term stability of bentonite buffer in DGR include variations in moisture content, dry density and pore water chemistry. With a view to address these issues, the hydromechanical response of 70 % Barmer-1 bentonite + 30 % river sand mix (termed bentonite enhanced sand, BES specimens) under varying moisture content, dry density and pore water salt concentration conditions have been examined. The broad scope of the work includes: 1) Characterise the physico-chemical and hydro-mechanical properties of Barmer-1 bentonite from Rajasthan, India and compare its properties with bentonite buffers reported in literature. 2) Examine the influence of variations in dissolved salt concentration (of infiltrating solution), dry density and moisture content of compacted BES specimens on their hydro-mechanical response; the hydro-mechanical properties include, swell pressure, soil water characteristic curve (SWCC), unsaturated hydraulic conductivity, moisture diffusivity and unconfined compression strength. Organization of thesis: After the first introductory chapter, a detailed review of literature is performed to highlight the need for detailed characterisation of physico-chemical and hydromechanical properties of Barmer-1 bentonite for its possible application in DGR in the Indian context. Further, existing literature on hydro-mechanical response of bentonite buffer to changes in physical (degree of saturation/moisture content, dry density) and physico-chemical (solute concentration in pore water) is reviewed to define the scope and objectives of the present thesis in Chapter 2. Chapter 3 presents a detailed experimental programme of the study. Chapter 4 characterises Barmer-1 bentonite for physico-chemical (cation exchange capacity, pore water salinity, exchangeable sodium percentage) and hydro-mechanical properties, such as, swell pressure, saturated permeability, soil water characteristic curve (SWCC) and unconfined compression strength. The properties of Barmer-1 bentonite are compared with bentonite buffers reported in literature and generalized equations for determining swell pressure and saturated permeability coefficient of bentonite buffers are arrived at. Chapter 5 describes a method to determine solute concentrations in the inter-lamellar and free-solutions of compacted BES (bentonite enhanced sand) specimens. The solute concentrations in micro and macro pore solutions are used to examine the role of osmotic flow on swell pressures developed by compacted BES specimens (dry density 1.50-2.00 Mg/m3) inundated with distilled water and NaCl solutions (1000-5000 mg/L). The number of hydration layers developed by the compacted BES specimens on inundation with salt solutions in constant volume swell pressure tests is controlled by cation hydration/osmotic flow. The cation hydration of specimens compacted to dry density of 2.00 Mg/m3 is mainly driven by matric suction prevailing in the clay microtructure as the number of hydration layers developed at wetting equilibrium are independent of the total dissolved solids (TDS) of the wetting solution. Consequently, the swell pressures of specimens compacted to 2.00 Mg/m3 were insensitive to the salt concentration of the inundating solution. The cation hydration of specimens compacted to dry density of 1.50 Mg/m3 is driven by both matric suction (prevailing in the clay micro-structure) and osmotic flow as the number of hydration layers developed at wetting equilibrium is sensitive to the TDS of the wetting solution. Expectedly, the swell pressures of specimens compacted to 1.50 Mg/m3 responded to changes in salt concentration of the inundating solution. The 1.75 Mg/m3 specimens show behaviour that is intermediate to the 1.50 and 2.00 Mg/m3 series specimens. Chapter 6 examines the influence of initial degree of saturation on swell pressures developed by the compacted BES specimens (dry density range: 1.40- 2.00 Mg/m3) on wetting with distilled water from micro-structural considerations. The micro-structure of the bentonite specimens are examined in the compacted and wetted states by performing X-ray diffraction measurements. The initial degree of saturation is varied by adding requisite amount of distilled water to the oven-dried BES mix and compacting the moist mixes to the desired density. The montmorillonite fraction in the BES specimens is responsible for moisture absorption during compaction and development of swell pressure in the constant volume oedometer tests. Consequently, it was considered reasonable to calculate degree of saturation based on EMDD (effective montmorillonite dry density) values and correlate the developed swell pressure values with degree of saturation of montmorillonite voids (Sr,MF). XRD measurements with compacted and wetted specimens demonstrated that if specimens of density series developed similar number of hydration layers on wetting under constant volume condition they exhibited similar swell pressures, as was the case for specimens belonging to 1.40 and 1.50 Mg/m3 series. With specimens belonging to 1.75 and 2.00 Mg/m3 series, greater number of hydration layers were developed by specimens that were less saturated initially (smaller initial Sr,MF) and consequently such specimens developed larger swell pressures. When specimens developed similar number of hydration layers in the wetted state, the compaction dry density determined the swell pressure. Chapter 7 examines the influence of salt concentration of infiltrating solution (sodium chloride concentration ranges from 1000- 5000 mg/L) on SWCC relations, unsaturated permeability and moisture diffusivity of compacted BES specimens. Analysis of the experimental and Brooks and Corey best fit plots revealed that infiltration of sodium chloride solutions had progressively lesser influence on the micro-structure and consequently on the SWCC relations with increase in dry density of the compacted specimens. The micro-structure and SWCC relations of specimens compacted to 1.50 Mg/m3 were most affected, specimens compacted to 1.75 Mg/m3 were less affected, while specimens compacted to 2.00 Mg/m3 were unaffected by infiltration of sodium chloride solutions. Variations in dry density of compacted bentonite impacts the pore space available for moisture flow, while, salinity of wetting fluid impacts the pore structure from associated physico-chemical changes in clay structure. Experimental results showed that the unsaturated permeability coefficient is insensitive to variations in dry density and solute concentration of wetting liquid, while, the effective hydraulic diffusivity is impacted by variations in these parameters. Chapter 8 summarises the major findings of the study.