Group B Streptococcus [GBS; Streptococcus agalactiae] is the leading cause of life-threatening diseases in newborn and is also becoming a common cause of invasive diseases in non-pregnant, elderly and immune-compromised adults. Pili, long filamentous fibers protruding from the bacterial surface, have been discovered in GBS, as important virulence factors and vaccine candidates. Gram-positive bacteria build pili on their cell surface via a class C sortase-catalyzed transpeptidation mechanism from pilin protein substrates. Despite the availability of several crystal structures, pilus-related C sortases remain poorly characterized to date and their mechanisms of transpeptidation and regulation need to be further investigated. The available three-dimensional structures of these enzymes reveal a typical sortase fold except for the presence of a unique feature represented by an N-terminal highly flexible loop, known as the “lid”. This region interacts with the residues composing the catalytic triad and covers the active site, thus maintaining the enzyme in an auto-inhibited state and preventing the accessibility to the substrate. It is believed that enzyme activation may occur only after lid displacement from the catalytic domain. In this work we provide the first direct evidence of the regulatory role of the lid, demonstrating that it is possible to obtain in vitro an efficient polymerization of pilin subunits using an active C sortase lid mutant carrying a single residue mutation in the lid region. Moreover, biochemical analyses of this recombinant mutant reveal that the lid confers thermodynamic and proteolytic stability to the enzyme. A further characterization of this sortase active mutant showed promiscuity in the substrate recognition, as it is able to polymerize different LPXTG-proteins in vitro.

Recenti analisi sull’intero trascrittoma hanno rivelato una estensiva trascrizione di RNA non codificanti (ncRNA), le quali funzioni sono tuttavia in gran parte sconosciute. In questo lavoro è stato dimostrato che alte dosi di camptotecina (CPT), un farmaco antitumorale inibitore della Top1, aumentano la trascrizione di due ncRNA antisenso in 5’ e 3’ (5'aHIF-1α e 3'aHIF-1α rispettivamente) al locus genico di HIF-1α e diminuiscono i livelli dell’mRNA di HIF-1α stesso. Gli effetti del trattamento sono Top1-dipendenti, mentre non dipendono dal danno al DNA alla forca di replicazione o dai checkpoint attivati dal danno al DNA. I ncRNA vengono attivati in risposta a diversi tipi di stress, il 5'aHIF-1α è lungo circa 10 kb e possiede sia il CAP in 5’ sia poliadenilazione in 3’ (in letteratura è noto che il 3'aHIF-1α è un trascritto di 1,7 kb, senza 5’CAP né poliadenilazione). Analisi di localizzazione intracellulare hanno dimostrato che entrambi sono trascritti nucleari. In particolare 5'aHIF-1α co-localizza con proteine del complesso del poro nucleare, suggerendo un suo possibile ruolo come mediatore degli scambi della membrana nucleare. È stata dimostrata inoltre la trascrizione dei due ncRNA in tessuti di tumore umano del rene, evidenziandone possibili ruoli nello sviluppo del cancro. È anche noto in letteratura che basse dosi di CPT in condizioni di ipossia diminuiscono i livelli di proteina di HIF-1α. Dopo aver dimostrato su diverse linee cellulari che i due ncRNA sopracitati non potessero essere implicati in tale effetto, abbiamo studiato le variazioni dell’intero miRnoma alle nuove condizioni sperimentali. In tal modo abbiamo scoperto che il miR-X sembra essere il mediatore molecolare dell’abbattimento di HIF-1α dopo trattamento con basse dosi di CPT in ipossia. Complessivamente, questi risultati suggeriscono che il fattore di trascrizione HIF-1α venga finemente regolato da RNA non-codificanti indotti da danno al DNA. / Whole transcriptome analyses revealed a broad transcription of non-coding RNAs (ncRNA), which functions are largely unknown. In this work it was shown that high doses of camptothecin (CPT), an antitumor inhibitor of Top1, increase the transcription of two ncRNA antisense 5 'and 3' (5'aHIF-1α and 3'aHIF-1α respectively) respect to the locus HIF-1α gene and decreased HIF-1α mRNA levels. Treatment effects are Top1-dependent, while are not dependent by the replication fork-mediated DNA damage or by DNA damage-activated checkpoints. The ncRNAs are activated in response to different stress types, the 5'aHIF-1α is about 10 kb length and it has both 5’CAP and polyadenylation (in literature it is known that the 3'aHIF-1α is a transcript of 1.7 kb, with no 5'CAP and no polyadenylation). Intracellular localization have shown that both ncRNAs are nuclear transcripts. In particular 5'aHIF-1α co-localizes with nuclear pore complex proteins, suggesting its possible role as a traffic-mediator of the nuclear membrane. It has been demonstrated also the transcription of the two ncRNAs in human kidney tumor tissues, highlighting it possible roles in cancer development. It is also known that low doses of CPT in hypoxia conditions decrease the HIF-1α protein levels. Having demonstrated on several cell lines that the two ncRNA above could not be implicated in this effect, we studied the entire human miRnoma variations under our experimental conditions. Thus we found that miR-X seems to be the molecular mediator of HIF-1α abatement after low doses CPT treatment in hypoxia conditions. Overall, these results suggest that HIF-1α transcription factor is finely regulated by non-coding RNA induced by DNA damage.

Il medulloblastoma (MB) è il tumore più comune del sistema nervoso centrale. Attualmente si riesce a curare solo il 50-60% dei pazienti che tuttavia presentano gravi effetti collaterali dovuti alle cure molto aggressive. Una recente classificazione molecolare ha ridistribuito le varianti più comuni di MB in quattro distinti gruppi. In particolare, il gruppo SHH e D sono caratterizzati da un’ alta espressione di MYCN ed associati a prognosi sfavorevole. MYCN è coinvolto nella regolazione della proliferazione cellulare, differenziazione, apoptosi, angiogenesi e metastasi. L’obiettivo di questo lavoro è la valutazione dell’attività antitumorale di oligonucleotidi diretti contro MYCN, sia in vitro su diverse linee cellulari di MB che in vivo in modelli murini xenograft ortotopici di MB. I risultati hanno dimostrato un’ottima inibizione della crescita in linee cellulari di MB, accompagnata da una riduzione della trascrizione genica e dei livelli proteici di MYCN. Inoltre, sono stati confermati tramite RT-PCR alcuni dei geni trovati significativamente variati nell’esperimento di microarray , dopo il trattamento. Molto interessanti sono stati geni quali BIRC5, che risulta down regolato mentre il gene p21 risulta up regolato in tutte le linee cellulari di MB utilizzate. Inoltre, sono stati generati modelli murini di MB utilizzando cellule precedentemente trasfettate per esprimere il gene della luciferasi e valutarne così la crescita tumorale tramite imaging bioluminescente in vivo (BLI), al fine di poter testare l’attività antitumorale data dagli oligonucleotidi. I risultati hanno dimostrato una buona risposta al trattamento come rilevato dalla tecnica di BLI. I dati preliminari prodotti, dimostrano che MYCN potrebbe esser un buon target per la terapia del MB nei casi in cui è overespresso. In particolare, una sua inibizione potrebbe presentare effetti indesiderati moderati in quanto è poco espresso dopo la nascita. / Medulloblastoma (MB) is the most common paediatric tumor of central nervous system. Currently only 50-60% of the patients are successfully cured and many of the patients who survive exhibit serious side effects due to the very aggressive therapies they underwent. Recently, molecular classification revealed that MBs can be categorized in four distinct subtypes. In particular, subtype SHH and D are characterised molecularly by high levels of MYCN and are associated with the worst prognosis. The N-Myc protein is involved in the regulation of the cellular proliferation, differentiation, apoptosis, angiogenesis, metastasis. The purpose of this work is the evaluation of the specific anti-tumor activity of anti-MYCN oligonucleotides in vitro using different MB cell lines and in vivo, in xenograft MB mouse models. These treatments resulted in a remarkable reduction of the growing rate in Mb cell lines followed by downregulation in gene transcription and protein levels of MYCN. Moreover, I confirmed in RT-PCR some of the candidate genes that were found significantly differentiated in the microarray experiment, after treatment. I found very interesting genes like BIRC5, that is down-regulated, while p21 is up-regulated in all MB cell lines. I also generated MB mouse models using cells transfected with luciferase to evaluated tumor growth througt bioluminescence imaging (BLI) in vivo in order to test the oligonucleotide anti-tumoral activity. The results showed a good response to treatment as monitored by BLI tumor signal. Finally, the primary studies showed that MYCN could be a target for MB therapy when the overexpression is present. In particularly, due its very restricted expression pattern after bird side effects of systemic down-regulation of MYCN can be expected to be moderate.

Diabetes mellitus is considered a risk factor for Group B Streptococcus (GBS) infections. Typically, this pathology is associated to high glucose levels in the bloodstream. Although clinical evidences support this notion, the physiological mechanisms underlying GBS adaptation to such conditions are not yet defined. In the attempt to address this issue, we performed comparative global gene expression analysis of GBS grown under glucose-stress conditions and observed that a number of metabolic and virulence genes was differentially regulated. Of importance, we also demonstrated that by knocking-out the csrRS locus the transcription profile of GBS grown in high-glucose conditions was profoundly affected, with more than a third of glucose-dependent genes, including the virulence factor bibA, found to be controlled by this two-component system. Furthermore, in vitro molecular analysis showed that CsrR specifically binds to the bibA promoter and the phosphorilation increases the affinity of the regulator to this promoter region. Moreover, we demonstrated that CsrR acts as a repressor of bibA expression by binding to its promoter in vivo. In conclusion, this work by elucidating both the response of GBS to pathological glucose conditions and the underlined molecular mechanisms will set the basis for a better understanding of GBS pathogenesis.

Neisseria meningitidis (Nm) is the major cause of septicemia and meningococcal meningitis. During the course of infection, it must adapt to different host environments as a crucial factor for survival. Despite the severity of meningococcal sepsis, little is known about how Nm adapts to permit survival and growth in human blood. A previous time-course transcriptome analysis, using an ex vivo model of human whole blood infection, showed that Nm alters the expression of nearly 30% of ORFs of the genome: major dynamic changes were observed in the expression of transcriptional regulators, transport and binding proteins, energy metabolism, and surface-exposed virulence factors. Starting from these data, mutagenesis studies of a subset of up-regulated genes were performed and the mutants were tested for the ability to survive in human whole blood; Nm mutant strains lacking the genes encoding NMB1483, NalP, Mip, NspA, Fur, TbpB, and LctP were sensitive to killing by human blood. Then, the analysis was extended to the whole Nm transcriptome in human blood, using a customized 60-mer oligonucleotide tiling microarray. The application of specifically developed software combined with this new tiling array allowed the identification of different types of regulated transcripts: small intergenic RNAs, antisense RNAs, 5’ and 3’ untranslated regions and operons. The expression of these RNA molecules was confirmed by 5’-3’RACE protocol and specific RT-PCR. Here we describe the complete transcriptome of Nm during incubation in human blood; we were able to identify new proteins important for survival in human blood and also to identify additional roles of previously known virulence factors in aiding survival in blood. In addition the tiling array analysis demonstrated that Nm expresses a set of new transcripts, not previously identified, and suggests the presence of a circuit of regulatory RNA elements used by Nm to adapt to proliferate in human blood.

The study of the maturation process that occurs to a protein is of pivotal importance for the understanding of its function. This is true also in the vaccine field but in this case is also important to evaluate if inappropriate protein conformation and maturation play roles in the impairment of the functional immunogenicity of protein vaccines. Mass spectrometry (MS) is the method of choice for the study of the maturation process since each modification that occurs during the maturation will lead to a change in the mass of the entire protein. Therefore the aim of my thesis is the development of mass spectrometry-based approaches to study the maturation of proteins and the application of these methods to proteic vaccine candidates. The thesis is divided in two main parts. In the first part, I focused my attention on the study of the maturation of different vaccine candidates using native mass spectrometry. The analyses in this case have been performed using recombinant proteins produced in E. coli. In the second part I applied different MS strategies for the identification of unknown PTMs on pathogenic bacteria surface proteins since modified surface proteins are now considered for vaccine candidate selection.

The development of vaccines directed against polysaccharide capsules of S. pneumoniae, H. influenzae and N. meningitidis have been of great importance in preventing potentially fatal infections. Bacterial capsular polysaccharides are T-cell-independent antigens that induce specific antibody response characterized by IgM immunoglobulins, with a very low IgG class switched response and lack of capability of inducing a booster response. The inability of pure polysaccharides to induce sustained immune responses has required the development of vaccines containing polysaccharides conjugated to a carrier protein, with the aim to generate T cell help. It is clear that the immunogenicity of glycoconjugate vaccines can vary depending on different factors, e.g. chemical nature of the linked polysaccharide, carrier protein, age of the target population, adjuvant used. The present study analyzes the memory B cell (MBC) response to the polysaccharide and to the carrier protein following vaccination with a glycoconjugate vaccine for the prevention of Group B streptococcus (GBS) infection. Not much is known about the role of adjuvants in the development of immunological memory raised against GBS polysaccharides, as well as about the influence of having a pre-existing immunity against the carrier protein on the B cell response raised against the polysaccharide component of the vaccine. We demonstrate in the mouse model that adjuvants can increase the antibody and memory B cell response to the carrier protein and to the conjugated polysaccharide. We also demonstrate that a pre-existing immunity to the carrier protein favors the development of the antibody and memory B cell response to subsequent vaccinations with a glycoconjugate, even in absence of adjuvants. These data provide a useful insight for a better understanding of the mechanism of action of this class of vaccines and for designing the best vaccine that could result in a productive and long lasting memory response.

En aquesta tesi presentem una metodologia sistemàtica la qual permet caracteritzar sistemes biològics dinàmics a partir de dades de series temporals. Del treball desenvolupat se’n desprenen tres publicacions. En la primera desenvolupem un mètode d’optimització global determinista basat en l’outer approximation per a la estimació de paràmetres en sistemes biològics dinàmics. El nostre mètode es basa en la reformulació d’un conjunt d’equacions diferencials ordinàries al seu equivalent algebraic mitjançant l’ús de mètodes de col•locació ortogonal, donant lloc a un problema no convex programació no lineal (NLP). Aquest problema no convex NLP es descompon en dos nivells jeràrquics: un problema master de programació entera mixta (MILP) que proporciona una cota inferior rigorosa al solució global, i una NLP esclau d’espai reduït que dóna un límit superior. L’algorisme itera entre aquests dos nivells fins que un criteri de terminació es satisfà. En les publicacions segona i tercera vam desenvolupar un mètode que és capaç d’identificar l’estructura regulatòria amb els corresponents paràmetres cinètics a partir de dades de series temporals. En la segona publicació vam definir un problema d’optimització dinàmica entera mixta (MIDO) on minimitzem el criteri d’informació d’Akaike. En la tercera publicació vam adoptar una perspectiva MIDO multicriteri on minimitzem l’ajust i complexitat simultàniament mitjançant el mètode de l’epsilon constraint on un dels objectius es tracta com la funció objectiu mentre que la resta es converteixen en restriccions auxiliars. En ambdues publicacions els problemes MIDO es reformulen a programació entera mixta no lineal (MINLP) mitjançant la col•locació ortogonal en elements finits on les variables binàries s’utilitzem per modelar l’existència d’interaccions regulatòries. / En esta tesis presentamos una metodología sistemática que permite caracterizar sistemas biológicos dinámicos a partir de datos de series temporales. Del trabajo desarrollado se desprenden tres publicaciones. En la primera desarrollamos un método de optimización global determinista basado en el outer approximation para la estimación de parámetros en sistemas biológicos dinámicos. Nuestro método se basa en la reformulación de un conjunto de ecuaciones diferenciales ordinarias a su equivalente algebraico mediante el uso de métodos de colocación ortogonal, dando lugar a un problema no convexo de programación no lineal (NLP). Este problema no convexo NLP se descompone en dos niveles jerárquicos: un problema master de programación entera mixta (MILP) que proporciona una cota inferior rigurosa al solución global, y una NLP esclavo de espacio reducido que da un límite superior. El algoritmo itera entre estos dos niveles hasta que un criterio de terminación se satisface. En las publicaciones segunda y tercera desarrollamos un método que es capaz de identificar la estructura regulatoria con los correspondientes parámetros cinéticos a partir de datos de series temporales. En la segunda publicación definimos un problema de optimización dinámica entera mixta (MIDO) donde minimizamos el criterio de información de Akaike. En la tercera publicación adoptamos una perspectiva MIDO multicriterio donde minimizamos el ajuste y complejidad simultáneamente mediante el método del epsilon constraint donde uno de los objetivos se trata como la función objetivo mientras que el resto se convierten en restricciones auxiliares. En ambas publicaciones los problemas MIDO se reformulan a programación entera mixta no lineal (MINLP) mediante la colocación ortogonal en elementos finitos donde las variables binarias se utilizan para modelar la existencia de interacciones regulatorias. / In this thesis we present a systematic methodology to characterize dynamic biological systems from time series data. From the work we derived three publications. In the first we developed a deterministic global optimization method based on the outer approximation for parameter estimation in dynamic biological systems. Our method is based on reformulating the set of ordinary differential equations into an equivalent set of algebraic equations through the use of orthogonal collocation methods, giving rise to a nonconvex nonlinear programming (NLP) problem. This nonconvex NLP is decomposed into two hierarchical levels: a master mixed-integer linear programming problem (MILP) that provides a rigorous lower bound on the optimal solution, and a reduced-space slave NLP that yields an upper bound. The algorithm iterates between these two levels until a termination criterion is satisfied. In the second and third publications we developed a method that is able to identify the regulatory structure and its corresponding kinetic parameters from time series data. In the second publication we defined a mixed integer dynamic optimization problem (MIDO) which minimize the Akaike information criterion. In the third publication, we adopted a multi-criteria MIDO which minimize complexity and fit simultaneously using the epsilon constraint method in which one objective is treated as the objective function while the rest are converted to auxiliary constraints. In both publications MIDO problems were reformulated to mixed integer nonlinear programming (MINLP) through the use of orthogonal collocation on finite elements where binary variables are used to model the existence of regulatory interactions.

Friedreich’s Ataxia (FRDA) is a neurodegenerative disorder caused by a deficiency of the protein frataxin and characterized by oxidative stress. The first aim of my research project was to analyze the effects of tocotrienol in FRDA patients. Patients received for 2 months a low dose of tocotrienol. A number of biochemical parameters related to oxidative stress were studied. We consistently showed that taking for 2 months a low dose of tocotrienol led to the decrease of oxidative stress indexes in FRDA patients. Also, this study provides a suitable model to investigate the efficacy of natural compounds to counteract the oxidative stress in FRDA. Furthermore, we investigated whether the tocotrienol was able to modulate the expression of the frataxin isoforms (FXN-1, FXN -2, FXN-3) in FRDA patients. We demonstrated that tocotrienol leads to a specific and significant increase of FXN-3 expression. As no structural and functional details were available for FNX-2 and FXN-3, 3D-models were built. FXN-1, the canonical isoform, was then docked on the human iron-sulphur complex and functional interactions were computed; when FXN-1 was replaced by FXN-2 or FNX-3, we found that the interactions were maintained, thus suggesting a possible biological role for both isoforms. The second aim of my research project was to investigate the role of a single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) in the protein Sirtuin 6 in FRDA patients. In fact, it was known that those who harbour a SNP (Asn46/Ser46) in the gene enconding Sirt6 show a better outcome those individuals who are homozygous for the Asn 46 allele. We found that fibroblasts and iPSC-derived neurons from FRDA patients harboring the SNP (Asn46/Ser46) have a reduced amount of Sirt6 protein compared to cells from individuals who are homozygous for the prevalent Asn allele. Our studies provide new information on the role of Sirtuins in FRDA pathogenesis.

Nella presente tesi indaghiamo la potenzialità di LCM e Reverse Phase Protein microarray negli studi clinici. Si analizza la possibilità di creare una bio banca con line cellular primarie, al fine di conseguire drug test di sensibilità prima di decidere il trattamento da somministrare ai singoli pazienti. Sono stati ottenuti profili proteomici da biopsie pre e post terapia. I risultati dimostrano che questa piattaforma mostra il meccanismo di resistenza acquisito durante la terapia biologica. Questo ci ha portato ad analizzare una possibile stratificazione per pazienti con mCRC . I dati hanno rivelato distinti pathway di attivazione tra metastasi resecabile e non resecabili. I risultati mostrano inoltre due potenziali bersagli farmacologici. Ma la valutazione dell'intero tumore tramite singole biopsie sembra essere un problema a causa dell’eterogeneità intratumorale a livello genomico. Abbiamo indagato questo problema a livello dell'architettura del segnale in campioni di mCRC e ccRCC . I risultati indicano una somiglianza complessiva nei profili proteomici all'interno dello stesso tumore. Considerando che una singola biopsia è rappresentativa di un intera lesione , abbiamo studiato la possibilità di creare linee di cellule primarie, per valutare il profilo molecolare di ogni paziente. Fino ad oggi non c'era un protocollo per creare linee cellulari immortalizzate senza alcuna variazione genetica . abbiamo cosiderato, però, l'approccio innovativo delle CRCs. Ad oggi , non è ancora chiaro se tali cellule mimino il profilo dei tessuti oppure I passaggi in vitro modifichino i loro pathways . Sulla base di un modello di topo , i nostri dati mostrano un profilo di proteomica simile tra le linee di cellule e tessuti di topo LCM. In conclusione, i nostri dati dimostrano l'utilità della piattaforma LCM / RPPA nella sperimentazione clinica e la possibilità di creare una bio - banca di linee cellulari primarie, per migliorare la decisione del trattamento. / In the present thesis we investigate the potentiality of Laser Capture Microdissection (LCM) and Reverse Phase Protein microarray (RPPA) in clinical trials. Also we analyze the possibility to create a primary cell lines bio-bank in order to achieve sensitivity drug tests before to make a treatment decision. Proteomic profiles of pre and post therapy biopsies were obtained from the patients involved in a clinical trial. The results demonstrate that this platform shows the acquired resistance mechanism to the biological therapy. This had led us to discover a better stratification for patient with unresectable colorectal cancer liver metastasis. The RPPA data revealed distinct patterns activation between resectable and unresectable metastasis. Our results show two potential drug targets that could be combined for neo adjuvant treatment. But the evaluation of the whole tumor with single biopsies seems to be a problem due to the genomic intratumor heterogeneity. We investigate this problem in the functional signaling architecture of mCRC and ccRCC. The results indicated an overall similarity in the proteomic profiles within the same tumor. Based on the idea that a single biopsy is representative of a whole lesion, we evaluated the possibility to create primary cell lines, in order to evaluate the molecular profile for each patient for the best personalized therapy. To date there was not a protocol to create immortalized cell lines without any genetic change. We evaluate the innovative approach of the Conditionally Reprogrammed Cells. To date, it is still not clear if those cells mimic the tissue profile or not. Based on a CRC mouse model, our data show a similar proteomic profile between the cell lines and the mouse tissues. In conclusion, our data demonstrate the usefulness of LCM/RPPA platform in clinical trial and the possibility to create a primary cell lines bio-bank to improve treatment decision.