<p>The efficacy of intensive rotational targeted grazing (IRTG) for suppression of the invasive shrub, multiflora rose (Rosa multiflora) was investigated in upstate New York. Sheep stocked at high density were rotated through a circuit of enclosures at a frequency of 3-d per enclosure, from May-September, 2011 and 2012. The photosynthetic surface areas (PSA) and vitality of R. multiflora plants were evaluated before (May 2011) and after treatment by grazing (Sept 2011). Changes over time were compared with similar measurements of ungrazed plants. Species richness (S) was estimated in each enclosure before (May) and after (September) treatment. PSA in grazed enclosures declined by 56.8% over the 2011 season and by 62.5% during the 2012 season. One year after ITRG treatment, healthy R. multiflora plants in grazed enclosures had declined by 91% and unhealthy and dead plants had increased by more than 200%. The distributions of healthy, unhealthy and dead plants, in grazed and ungrazed enclosures, though not different before treatment (chi square goodness of fit test; p>0.05?? were different one year later (p<0.001). Mean S in grazed enclosures increased by 27% over the season and by the end of the study, S was 12% higher than ungrazed enclosures. Evidence of stress in R. multiflora (clumping, dwarfing and reddening of leaves) at the end of the 2011 season led me to investigate the possible presence of rose rosette disease (RRD) during 2012. Potential stress was confirmed in plants experiencing leaf reddening. Chlorophyll a concentrations were significantly lower in red than green leaves (Student?s t = 5.20, df=28, p<0.001). Not unexpectedly, Normalized Difference Vegetative Index (NDVI) lso differed in red and green leaves (Student?s t = 2.76, df=32, p<0.01). Green leaves had higher dry weights than red leaves (Student?s t=14.13, df=151, p<0.001). Wool from the sheep, and R. multiflora leaf and petiole samples were collected to determine if the eriophyid mite, Phyllocoptes fructiphilus, a vector for RRD was present. No significant evidence of P. fructiphilus in leaf and petiole (Mean=0.00 N=414 SD=.71) or wool samples (Mean=0.00 N=11 SD=0) was found. This was unexpected, although it would only take one mite to be the vector if that particular mite was carrying the rose rosette virus. Further studies would be required to test whether rose rosette was confirmed in this population. Visual evidence of RRD symptoms were more prevalent in grazed enclosures than ungrazed locations, and a greater decline in grazed enclosures was clear.

<p> Habitat use by federally threatened California Red-Legged Frogs (CRLF; <i>Rana draytonii</i>) is incompletely understood. I captured, PIT-tagged, and radio-tracked CRLFs (n = 20) at Waddell Creek, Santa Cruz County, from July&ndash;December 2012. Limited tracking for movements was also conducted in 2013. Frogs were clumped in deep, complex habitats along the stream within 2 km of breeding ponds near the stream mouth, but most adults were concentrated in the lagoon. Marked and tracked frogs had very small summer home ranges, and most returned to the same home range after breeding. Frogs tended to use good aquatic (e.g., wood, undercut banks, dense willows) and bank cover (e.g., ground vegetation, wood) at all times but used open habitats more at night than during the day. Visual night surveys were biased against cryptic frogs compared to radio-tracking results. Early fall rains increased upland habitat use, but later heavy winter rains were needed to trigger migration to breeding sites and subsequent breeding. Site-specific studies using radio-tracking are needed to design protections for breeding, migration, and nonbreeding habitats.</p>

<p> Very little information is available on the Hawaiian Oyster <i> Dendostrea sandvicensis</i> in regards to its biology and physiology. Efforts were made to better understand the active reproductive season of this oyster by studying the population located in He'eia fish pond in Kaneohe Bay, O`ahu. This study focused on the condition index (CI) and gonadal developmental stage trends, measured from monthly oyster tissue samples from January to December 2009. The relationship between CI and temperature was examined. Results suggest CI is not related to temperature. Further analysis defined a positive correlation for CI and temperature during summer but not in winter. Ranges in CI values were higher in summer than in winter. <i>D. sandvicensis </i> experience a tropical reproductive cycle, as trends related to the gonadal stage indicate. January to March is dominated by maturing gonads. From April to October there is a rise and then steady decline of empty gonads indicating an active reproduction season. From November to December a rise in mature gonads indicate readiness for reproduction and recovery. Empty gonads are present through out the year indicating reproduction happens throughout the year, and peaks in beginning of summer.</p>

<p> Since European colonization, Appalachian culture has been based on resource extraction, such as coal mining, timbering, and Non-Timber Forest Product (NTFP) harvest. Surface mining degrades forest habitat for medicinal plants, especially the habitat for the internationally valuable medicinal herb, American ginseng (<i>Panax quinquefolius</i> L.), and the NTFP culture associated with this plant. The relationship between medicinal plant conservation and surface mining must be studied with a non- traditional, multi-faceted approach: culturally, economically, and ecologically. (1) Using community-based participatory surveys, I determined how ginseng harvesters and non- harvesters in West Virginia communities view the relationship between surface mining and ginseng harvest. Harvester culture is one worth preserving, as they value conservation. However, most harvesters admit to illegal harvesting practices. By determining what harvesters and non-harvesters prioritize and value, and understanding what is the most effective way to connect with these two groups, this research can aid in the development of successful environmental education and conservation outreach. (2) Challenging the perceptions that economic growth is incompatible with ecological consciousness, an economic analysis comparing the short-term gains of surface mining to the potential economic value of sustainable ginseng harvest or a large-scale ginseng farm operation was completed. Through an in-depth economic modeling approach I showed that stewarded ginseng harvest can be economically advantageous in the long-term while maintaining the integrity of the forest. (3) For reintroduction purposes, the concept of &lsquo;indicator species&rsquo; is frequently used. These species are often selected based on anecdotal information, rather than scientific rigor. In order to maximize the efficiency of ginseng reintroductions, I analyzed the ability of select putative indicators (herbs, shrubs, and trees) to serve as site and microsite predictors of ginseng growth. Most indicators were ineffective, and the ones that did show a relationship to growth were contra- indicators, predicting reduced individual plant growth. This research may aid reintroduction and agroforestry projects, and thereby reduce the frequency of reintroductions that fail because plants are introduced into suboptimal locations. (4) By experimentally reintroducing two medicinal plants, ginseng and goldenseal, to two sites with three types of disturbance history, I determined that degraded landscapes can return to a forested state that supports medicinal plant growth and reproduction, although microsite and soil conditions were found to be important to consider when reintroducing plants. As such, appropriate future land-management decisions can be made based on land-use legacy. By combining social, economic, and ecological studies, medicinal plant conservation can be implemented through the development of environmental outreach and effective reintroduction strategies.</p>

<p> As changing ocean conditions lead to declining fish stocks and movement of forage fish, sea lions on the Oregon coast are subject to the pressures of declining prey availability and increasing conflicts with commercial and recreational fisheries. An analysis of strandings of California sea lions, _{Zalophus californianus,} and Steller sea lions, <i>Eumetopias jubatus, </i> from 2006 to 2014, included cause of death, changing ocean conditions, and anthropogenic activity. Causes of death included disease, injury, and human interaction, such as gunshot wounds, fisheries net entanglements and boat strikes. </p><p> Oregon and Washington strandings of California sea lions are primarily adult and subadult males that migrate north from California rookeries, while Steller sea lions are year-round residents and strandings are comprised of males and females of all ages. While the California sea lion population is currently at or near carrying capacity, the Eastern Pacific population of Steller sea lions was designated as Threatened under the Endangered Species Act until October 2013. Understanding impacts to these two pinniped species is vital to implementing effective management and conservation policies.</p><p> Oregon and southern Washington strandings of California sea lions and Steller sea lions from 2006 to 2014 were analyzed spatially using the geographic information system (GIS), and temporally to identify possible correlations with prey availability and human interaction. Strandings were found to follow seasonal patterns from year to year: Steller sea lion strandings were highest from May to July, California sea lions peaked in September, October, and November. There was a correlation between significantly high numbers of strandings and the three largest commercial fisheries in Oregon: Chinook salmon, Coho salmon, and Dungeness crab. </p><p> This analysis provides a format for continuing to monitor primary ecological and anthropogenic drivers of pinniped mortality in Oregon and southern Washington. </p>

<p> <i>Plethodon</i> salamanders may serve as important indicators of forest ecosystem integrity due to their niche, physiological sensitivity, abundance, site fidelity, and association with forest structures. Forest ecosystems provide direct and indirect services and products that benefit society. Monitoring the quality and status of these direct and indirect use values is important to manage and maximize the benefit to people. An ecological indicator is something that may indicate the state of a system. Indicators are widely used in a variety of fields including forestry, economics, and environmental management to monitor the state of desired systems. The IndVal method is a statistical analysis used to determine the efficacy of a species as an indicator species, by determining the association between the species of interest and site groups or habitats. I sought to determine if the red-backed salamander is an indicator of forests based on the IndVal method, and if the red-backed salamander may be used as an indicator of use values. I hypothesized that red-backed salamanders may be used as an indicator of standing mature forested areas. I hypothesized that salamander abundance would be highest in forested areas and may act as an indicator species of forest habitats. I hypothesized that red-backed salamander abundance would have a positive correlation with indirect use values and a negative correlation with direct use values. The study area consisted of Forestland, Timberland, and Agriculture land-uses within northwestern Pennsylvania. I used visual encounter surveys and drift fences for capturing of red-backed salamanders (<i>Plethodon cinereus</i>) for abundance estimates. Visual encounter surveys were done within area constrained (10 &times; 10m) plots and a time constraint of roughly 30 minutes. I measured environmental variables within each plot. An N-mixture model of <i>P. cinereus</i> was used to estimate abundance based on repeated counts data. I used a principal components analysis (PCA) to determine which environmental variables were associated with study sites. I used a Kruskal-Wallis test and post-hoc Dunn&rsquo;s test to determine differences between land-use in red-backed salamander abundance. I applied the IndVal method to red-backed salamander abundance in association to land-use and habitat. I estimated indirect use values through cost replacement methods for water purification, water cycling production, nitrate treatment, and soil erosion. I obtained direct use values through land-owners and the U.S. Forest Service archives, which the cost of production and gross value of production were used to determine the net and gross value. I used a Spearman&rsquo;s Rank correlation to determine the relationship between red-backed salamander abundance and the direct and indirect use values of land-uses. The PCA 1 axis described an environmental gradient of closed to open canopy. Forestland sites had the lowest sunlight values, Agriculture having the highest, and Timberland intermediate between the two. Canopy percent cover was the most informative variable in the N-mixture model. Red-backed salamander abundance was greatest, mean = 434, on Forestland sites and was significantly (p-value &lt; 0.05) different from Timberland and Agriculture. The red-backed salamander was highly associated with Forestland with an indicator species value of 0.876, and 0.972 for forests. Red-backed salamanders held a significant strong positive relationship with indirect use values, rho = 0.84. <i>P. cinereus</i> abundance had a significant strong negative relationship with gross direct use values, rho = &ndash;0.95, and net direct use values, rho = &ndash;0.92. The strong correlation between <i>P. cinereus</i> abundance and indirect use values suggest that red-backed salamander abundance may have applications as an indicator of indirect use values for forest ecosystems.</p><p>

<p> This study provides the first assessment of demographic and habitat information for pinto abalone (<i>Haliotis kamtschatkana</i>) in San Diego, California, two decades after the closure of all abalone fisheries in southern California. SCUBA surveys conducted from June 2014 to December 2016 indicate that current low densities (0-0.03 individuals/m²) were far below critical thresholds identified for other abalone species (0.15-0.30 abalone/m²) for successful spawning and recruitment. A broad range of sizes were represented (13-146 mm), however, only 95 individuals were found. Some sites showed significant aggregation of adult (> 50 mm) pinto abalone, 30% of adults had a nearest-neighbor within a critical spawning distance of 2 m, and 65% had a neighbor within 5 m, indicating that at least a small proportion of individuals may be capable of reproducing successfully. Pinto abalone showed a significant preference for boulder habitat at a lower relief (&lt; 10 cm) relative to available habitat&ndash; a preference that may influence aggregation around habitat features and enhance reproduction. The frequency, timing, and broad spatial distribution of these surveys was not sufficient to measure patterns in recruitment or changes in abundance, particularly over a strong El Ni&ntilde;o event that occurred during the study period. There is a critical need for consistent long-term monitoring in southern California to better understand demographic and environmental processes affecting recovery and persistence of populations, particularly at the southern edge of the broad range of pinto abalone.</p><p>

<p> Coral reefs on Florida&rsquo;s Reef Tract (FRT) are susceptible to many anthropogenic influences including controlled freshwater discharges and agricultural runoff as well as high natural environmental variability from seasonal rainfall, runoff and upwelling. To better understand coral population structure and responses to sublethal stressors, populations of the scleractinian coral <i> Montastraea cavernosa</i> in the northern FRT were examined using a combination of genomic and transcriptomic techniques. Microsatellite genetic markers identified high local retention among sites and a slight southward gene flow. An _in-situ temporal gene expression analysis utilizing a tag-based sequencing transcriptomic approach was used to analyze baseline coral health at St. Lucie Reef (SLR), off Stuart, FL. Temporal variation had the greatest influence of differential gene expression among <i>M. cavernosa</i> at SLR. Results will be shared with local resource managers and coupled with a complementary <i> ex-situ</i> experimental trial.</p><p>

<p> The predominant method to quantify reef fish populations is the Open Circuit SCUBA (OC) <i>in-situ</i> fish survey. However, there are many biases associated with these surveys including the expelled OC exhaust which can cause visual and audible disturbances. This study aims to evaluate the bias created by OC exhaust utilizing closed-circuit rebreather (CCR) surveys, along surveys were conducted in protected areas and fished areas. The three sites in the main Hawaiian Islands were Kealakekua Bay (KK), Old Kona Airport (OA), and P&umacr;p&umacr;kea (PK) marine life conservation district. This study found that the total fish biomass and species richness from all sites pooled showed no significant differences between gear types. However, there was a significant interaction between the gear type and the protection status (Pr(>|t|) = 0.025), indicating that there are greater differences between OC and CCR in the fished areas than the protected areas. The difference between the gear types showed a greater magnitude of OC having a higher biomass in the fished areas opposed to the protected areas where that difference was smaller. When fished species (Table 4 &ndash; a, b) were examined, significant differences between gear types were shown (Pr(>|t|) = 0.010). The OC surveys showed more fished biomass than the CCR surveys which could mean that the attraction to the exhaust within the protected areas were greater than the repulsion of the exhaust in the fished areas. Differences in the fished species biomass while having no difference in the all fish biomass supports the previous studies findings that fishing pressure is very influential on the magnitude of difference between the gear types. For researchers, estimating fishing pressure is of high importance in order to assess the level of bias associated with OC exhaust on surveys. These biases need to be accounted for in population estimations for protected areas and non-protected areas in order to get more accurate biological fish data.</p><p>

<p> Humans introduce non-native plants to new areas at an increasing rate with the increased movement across the globe. These invasive species can become mono-cultures and extremely different from the native floral community. Amphibians, at the same time, are facing global declines with approximately one-third of all amphibians threatened or endangered. Due to the importance of amphibians as prey items for many vertebrates including small birds, mammals, and reptiles, and also predator controls over many invertebrates, including some pest species, the decline of amphibians has large implications for many environments. This study looks at a range of interactions between two invasive plants (<i> Typha angustifolia</i> and <i>Phragmites australis</i>) and two native anurans (<i>Lithobates clamitans</i> and <i>Lithobates catesbeianus</i>). </p><p> As ecosystem engineers, plants form the basis of many communities, and sculpt the physical environment by adding complexity to the earth's surface. They also add chemical constituents either actively or passively too ward off other competitors. This change in the environment on both the chemical and physical level leads to complex possibilities for a changed plant community to impact the rest of the ecosystem, including amphibians. I focus on the physical changes by looking at behavior of amphibians in these invasive plant mono-cultures and non-invaded controls, and their appearance in invaded and non-invaded wetlands, both constructed and naturally occurring. On the chemical side of the matter, I monitor water chemistry measures in natural and constructed wetlands that are either lacking invasive plants or have a substantial presence of these plants, and correlate those measures with tadpole growth and survival. </p>