In recent years, proponents of 'green and clean fuel' have argued that the costs of overreliance on fossil fuels could be reduced through transition to biofuels such as bio-ethanol. Global biofuel discourses suggest that any transition to biofuel invariably results in significant benefits, including energy independence, job creation, development of agro-industrial centres at local level and high revenue generations for the state with minimum negative impacts on the environment. With many risks and costs associated with traditional 'dirty' fuels, it is likely that many countries, particularly African countries, will move towards the 'green and clean fuel' alternative. However, until recently research has arguably paid limited attention to the local livelihood impacts related to land acquisition for biofuel development or the policy frameworks required to maximise biofuel benefits. With regards to biofuel benefits, some recent studies suggest that the much bandied potential for greater tax revenue, lowered fuel costs and wealth distribution from biofuel production have all been perverted with relatively little payoff in wage labour opportunities in return (e.g. Richardson, 2010; Wilkinson and Herrera, 2010). Based on work done in Chisumbanje communal lands of Zimbabwe (Thondhlana, 2015), this policy brief highlights the local livelihood impacts of biofuel development and discusses policy implications of the findings. By highlighting the justifications of biofuel development at any cost by the state, the study sheds some light on the conflicts between state interests and local livelihood needs.

No abstract available. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of Natal, Durban, 1993.

Microphytobenthos (MPB) generally dominates total autotrophic biomass in temporarily open/closed estuaries (TOCEs) of South Africa. A comparative study of MPB biomass was undertaken in two KwaZulu-Natal TOCEs, the Mdloti and the Mhlanga. Both estuaries receive different volumes of treated sewage waters. The Mdloti receives 8 ML.d-1, while the Mhlanga receives 20 ML.d-1, resulting in a capping flow of 0.092 and 0.23 m3.s-1, respectively. Through these effluents, eutrophication is enhanced and periods of mouth opening are also increased and prolonged, particularly at the Mhlanga. The aim of this study was to investigate fluctuations in MPB biomass in the Mdloti and the Mhlanga systems, with emphasis on freshwater flow and the alternation of closed and open phases. Sediment samples for MPB biomass were collected on a monthly basis, between March 2002 and March 2003, in the lower (mouth), middle, and upper (head) reaches of the two estuaries. MPB biomass ranged from 1.33 to 391 mg chI a m-2 and from 1.7 to 313 mg chI a m-2 in the Mdloti and the Mhlanga, respectively. A I-way ANOVA revealed no significant differences in MPB chI a concentrations between the two estuaries for the entire data set (Fl, 76 =1.48, P > 0.05). At the Mdloti, MPB biomass varied considerably, with values ranging from 1.33 to 131 mg chI a m-2 during the open phase, and from 18 to 391 mg chI a m-2 during the closed phase. A Mann-Whitney U test confirmed the high significance of these differences between open and closed phases (U= 29, P < 0.001). At the Mhlanga, MPB biomass ranged from 7.0 to 313 mg chI a m-2 during the open phase, and from 1.7 to 267 mg chI a m-2 during the closed phase. Unlike what was observed at the Mdloti, the higher MPB values at the Mhlanga were not always associated with the closed mouth state. In relation to key physico-chemical and biological factors, grazing pressure exerted by the zooplankton community appeared to have played a major role in controlling MPB biomass. Zooplankton biomass was consistently and positively correlated to MPB biomass throughout the study period both at the Mdloti (r = 0040, P < 0.001) and at the Mhlanga (r = 0.33, p < 0.05). Unlike what was shown in previous studies, light attenuation was not significantly correlated with MPB biomass during the period ofthe study, either at the Mdloti or the Mhlanga. These results show that the opening and closing of the mouth play a key role on the MPB biomass of both estuaries. The Mdloti seems to function as a typical TOCE, with prolonged open and closed phases. The Mhlanga, on the other hand, lacks a prolonged closed phase. This, in turn, affects its entire trophic structure and functioning. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu- Natal, 2004.

Seed-oil based biodiesel production particularly biodiesel production from the nonedible oil seed bearing plant - Jatropha curcas L. - is a key strategic direction outlined in the biofuels strategy of the Government of Ethiopia. The main objective underlying the strategy include substitution of imported diesel oil used in the road transport sector while at the same time contributing to the local and global greenhouse gasses (GHG) reduction efforts. In this study the environmental benefits and costs of production and use of Jatropha biodiesel in the road transport sector of Ethiopia is assessed using a life cycle analysis (LCA) methodology. The analysis focused on determining the potential environmental impacts and net non-renewable energy saving potential of biodiesel from Jatropha oil-seeds using the following metrics: (i) Net Greenhouse Gas (GHG) reduction, and (ii) Net Energy Balance (NEB) relative to diesel oil. The study shows that the net GHG emissions reduction potential of Jatropha Methyl Ester (JME) is highly influenced by the magnitude of initial carbon loss occurring in the process of conversion of different land uses to Jatropha plantation, and less so on other unit processes of JME production system analysed. The NEB of JME relative to use of diesel oil per functional unit of one GJ is less sensitive to impacts of land use change and is generally positive. Where no land use change impacts is considered, or where Jatropha is grown on lands with low carbon stock such as grasslands, substitution of diesel oil with JME in Ethiopia can provide GHG emission reduction of about 43%, and for each MJ of JME produced the nonrenewable energy requirement will be 0,38 MJ. Production of JME by converting lands with high above ground, below ground and/or soil carbon stocks such as shrub lands or well stocked forest lands will result in net loss of carbon and require ecological carbon payback time of 50 to hundreds of years. The impact of introducing and use of JME-diesel oil blends by Anbassa City Bus Services Enterprise (ACBSE) bus fleets shows that, displacement of diesel oil with JME that have positive GHG reduction potential, will also contribute to the reduction of air pollutants and improvement of ambient air quality in Addis Ababa. Two key recommendations of this research work are that to ensure environmental sustainability of biodiesel production from Jatropha seeds (i) land availability and land suitability assessment for estimating the potential available land for Jatropha (and other oil-seed bearing plants) shall be conducted, and (ii) minimum requirements on GHG reduction and NEB requirements on biodiesel shall be established. / Environmental Sciences / M. Sc. (Environmental Management)

Atmospheric carbon dioxide levels have been steadily increasing from anthropogenic energy production, development and use. Carbon cycling in the terrestrial biosphere, particularly forest ecosystems, has an important role in regulating atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide. US West coast forest management policies are being developed to implement forest bioenergy production while reducing risk of catastrophic wildfire. Modeling and understanding the response of terrestrial ecosystems to changing environmental conditions associated with energy production and use are primary goals of global change science. Coupled carbon-nitrogen ecosystem process models identify and predict important factors that govern long term changes in terrestrial carbon stores or net ecosystem production (NEP). By quantifying and reducing uncertainty in model estimates using existing datasets, this research provides a solid scientific foundation for evaluating carbon dynamics under conditions of future climate change and land management practices at local and regional scales. Through the combined use of field observations, remote sensing data products, and the NCAR CESM/CLM4-CN coupled carbon-climate model, the objectives of this project were to 1) determine the interactive effects of changing environmental factors (i.e. increased CO���, nitrogen deposition, warming) on net carbon uptake in temperate forest ecosystems and 2) predict the net carbon emissions of West Coast forests under future climate scenarios and implementation of bioenergy programs. West Coast forests were found to be a current strong carbon sink after accounting for removals from harvest and fire. Net biome production (NBP) was 26 �� 3 Tg C yr�����, an amount equal to 18% of Washington, Oregon, and California fossil fuel emissions combined. Modeling of future conditions showed increased net primary production (NPP) because of climate and CO��� fertilization, but was eventually limited by nitrogen availability, while heterotrophic respiration (R[subscript h]) continued to increase, leading to little change in net ecosystem production (NEP). After accounting for harvest removals, management strategies which increased harvest compared to business-as-usual (BAU) resulted in decreased NBP. Increased harvest activity for bioenergy did not reduce short- or long-term emissions to the atmosphere regardless of the treatment intensity or product use. By the end of the 21st century, the carbon accumulated in forest regrowth and wood product sinks combined with avoided emissions from fossil fuels and fire were insufficient to offset the carbon lost from harvest removals, decomposition of wood products, associated harvest/transport/manufacturing emissions, and bioenergy combustion emissions. The only scenario that reduced carbon emissions compared to BAU over the 90 year period was a 'No Harvest' scenario where NBP was significantly higher than BAU for most of the simulation period. Current and future changes to baseline conditions that weaken the forest carbon sink may result in no change to emissions in some forest types. / Graduation date: 2013

M.A. / Although South Africa is a country endowed with abundant energy resources (fuels such as coal, uranium and gas), biomass is the prime source of energy for cooking and heating in the rural domestic sector. Fuelwood is the common biomass used, followed by crop residues and animal dung. This research examines the environmental and socio-economic impacts of biomass energy consumption in the Mbhokota village in the Northern Province. The research was conducted by means of a field survey. Data collection methods included administering questionnaires to those who are involved in fuelwood collection (mostly women), interviews with various interested groups and personal observation of the affected sites, and a review of literature relevant to this study. The use of biomass as a source of fuel has much wider implications for the social and biophysical environments. The excessive cutting of trees for fuel leads to a reduction in the diversity of plant species and destruction of habitat for wildlife. Loss of soil cover through the use of crop residues increases soil erosion and thus reduces the agricultural production. The use of biomass fuels gives rise to high levels of indoor air pollution which affects the health of people. As fuelwood supplies diminish, people must travel further and hence spend more time collecting wood. Greater time spent collecting wood means that less time is spent on food production and other household activities (farming, childcare, housekeeping, socialising and educating themselves). Other issues of concern include the high cost of purchasing wood from vendors and personal security in places where wood is collected. The above factors do not only entrench poverty, but also have dire implications for the rural economy. This study has shown that the present patterns of fuelwood collection inflict permanent damage on the environment, reducing its ability to provide further fuel in the future. The implication is that the supply of fuelwood can no longer be guaranteed in some parts of the study area, leading to the use of crop residues and animal dung. This report also highlights the recommendations and management measures (based on the results of the study) that can be used in mitigating the impacts of biomass energy use. These include the introduction of improved stoves, use of solar energy as an alternative energy source, empowerment of women, establishment of community based projects and integrating energy with rural development

Seed-oil based biodiesel production particularly biodiesel production from the nonedible oil seed bearing plant - Jatropha curcas L. - is a key strategic direction outlined in the biofuels strategy of the Government of Ethiopia. The main objective underlying the strategy include substitution of imported diesel oil used in the road transport sector while at the same time contributing to the local and global greenhouse gasses (GHG) reduction efforts. In this study the environmental benefits and costs of production and use of Jatropha biodiesel in the road transport sector of Ethiopia is assessed using a life cycle analysis (LCA) methodology. The analysis focused on determining the potential environmental impacts and net non-renewable energy saving potential of biodiesel from Jatropha oil-seeds using the following metrics: (i) Net Greenhouse Gas (GHG) reduction, and (ii) Net Energy Balance (NEB) relative to diesel oil. The study shows that the net GHG emissions reduction potential of Jatropha Methyl Ester (JME) is highly influenced by the magnitude of initial carbon loss occurring in the process of conversion of different land uses to Jatropha plantation, and less so on other unit processes of JME production system analysed. The NEB of JME relative to use of diesel oil per functional unit of one GJ is less sensitive to impacts of land use change and is generally positive. Where no land use change impacts is considered, or where Jatropha is grown on lands with low carbon stock such as grasslands, substitution of diesel oil with JME in Ethiopia can provide GHG emission reduction of about 43%, and for each MJ of JME produced the nonrenewable energy requirement will be 0,38 MJ. Production of JME by converting lands with high above ground, below ground and/or soil carbon stocks such as shrub lands or well stocked forest lands will result in net loss of carbon and require ecological carbon payback time of 50 to hundreds of years. The impact of introducing and use of JME-diesel oil blends by Anbassa City Bus Services Enterprise (ACBSE) bus fleets shows that, displacement of diesel oil with JME that have positive GHG reduction potential, will also contribute to the reduction of air pollutants and improvement of ambient air quality in Addis Ababa. Two key recommendations of this research work are that to ensure environmental sustainability of biodiesel production from Jatropha seeds (i) land availability and land suitability assessment for estimating the potential available land for Jatropha (and other oil-seed bearing plants) shall be conducted, and (ii) minimum requirements on GHG reduction and NEB requirements on biodiesel shall be established. / Environmental Sciences / M. Sc. (Environmental Management)