Philosophiae Doctor - PhD / Pregnancy-related poor maternal health and maternal death remain major problems in most Nigerian states including Cross River State. The acute impact of these problems is borne more heavily by rural communities where the majority of births take place at home unassisted or assisted by unskilled persons. These problems are due to a mixture of problem recognition and decision-making during obstetric emergencies leading to delayed actions. Every pregnancy faces risk, and prenatal screening cannot detect which pregnancy will develop complications. If the goal of reducing maternal morbidity/mortality is to be achieved, increasing the number of women receiving care from a skilled provider (doctor/nurse/midwife) during pregnancy, delivery, and post-delivery and prompt adequate care for obstetric complications has been identified as the single most important intervention. One of the strategies identified in many countries is engaging and working with individuals, families, and communities as partners to improve the quality of maternal healthcare. This strategy is thought to remove the barriers that dissuade women from using the services that are available, empowering the community members to increase their influence and control of maternal health, promote ownership and sustenance, as well as increase access to skilled care. The aim of the study: The overall aim of this PhD study was to develop a model of community engagement to facilitate the prevention of maternal health complications in the rural areas of Cross River State, Nigeria. To develop this model, the study specifically sought to: 1. Understand the current situation in Cross River State by exploring the knowledge gap of women of child-bearing age (pregnant and new mothers) regarding obstetric danger signs, birth preparedness and complication readiness, delivery practices of women, the action of family/community members, and the role of community-based maternal health initiatives, if any, in emergencies, as well as explore participants’ opinions on actions to be taken by the community to promote the utilisation of orthodox healthcare facilities by rural women of Cross River State (Phase 1). 2. Engage community members through a participatory approach (Photovoice) to highlight problems regarding pregnancy and birth practices, identify possible solutions, and make recommendations on communities’ roles in the prevention of maternal health complications (Phase 2). The older women of the study communities were also engaged to verify and validate the findings from phases 1 & 2 analyses. 3. Develop a model of community engagement to improve maternal health literacy by increasing knowledge on early detection of obstetric complications, birth preparedness, complication readiness, and improved access to skilled birth attendance (Phase 3). Methods: The study was conducted using a qualitative descriptive research approach that combined qualitative semi-structured interviews and focus group discussions within the Photovoice participatory approach. Purposive sampling was employed to select 20 participants, 10 each from the Idundu (Community A) and Anyanganse (Community B) rural communities of Akpabuyo Local Government Area of Cross River State, Nigeria. The participants comprised pregnant women and new mothers (babies aged 12 months and younger) who met the eligibility criteria. Data collection was by means of semi-structured interviews (Phase1), focused group discussions and Photovoice (Phase 2). Trustworthiness of the data was ensured by means of applying Guba’s model of credibility, transferability, and authenticity. The ethical principles of respect for human dignity, beneficence, confidentiality, and justice were applied throughout the study. The Citizenship Healthcare and Socio-Ecological Logic models were used to direct the study. Permission was obtained from participants for all the phases of the study while approval for the study was obtained from the Senate Higher Degrees Committee of the University of the Western Cape and the Cross River State Ministry of Health Ethical Committee. Data was analysed using Tesch’s method of content analysis. Based on the findings of Phases 1 & 2 of the study, themes emerged that were then validated by the older women in the study communities. The model was then developed by means of the four steps of the theory generation process. Step one was concept development that consisted of the identification, definition, validation, classification, and verification of the main and related concepts. Step two was model development consisting of the sub-steps, namely model guidelines and definitions. The communities’ stakeholders were engaged at this phase to verify and validate the concepts, as well as contribute to the drafting of the model guidelines and the definitions. Step three was a model description whereby the structure, definition, relation statements, and the process of the model were described. A visual application of the model that depicts the main concepts, the process, and the context was shown. Step four dealt with the development of guidelines for the operation of the model. A critical reflection of the model was done using Chinn and Kramer’s five criteria for model evaluation. Results: The study revealed that Idundu and Anyanganse’s rural women have limited knowledge of obstetric danger signs and very few of them acknowledged the importance of hospital delivery. They also exhibited poor understanding of what birth preparedness and complication readiness entailed. There was a high preference for traditional birth attendant care during pregnancy and delivery with their reasons being belief and trust in traditional birth attendants, a long standing tradition to deliver with them, assumptions that orthodox healthcare is expensive, poor attitude of healthcare providers towards women, unavailability of 24-hour services in healthcare facilities, fear of hospital procedures and operations, communal living in traditional birth attendant’s homes, spirituality in traditional birth attendant services, and the consideration of proximity to service points. These factors exacerbated the delays in seeking care and in referrals for skilled care in phases of emergency. The study also revealed that in the study communities, heavy household chores carried out by pregnant women is culturally accepted and seen as exercise to ease labour, there is lack of proper information regarding maternal and child health issues, men are sole decision-makers, they are ignorant of availability of free treatment in health centres, there is an ignorance regarding care of the new-born, and a lack of community structures to support women’s health. Based on the above findings, the women made the following suggestions towards finding a solution: improving maternal health literacy, increasing spirituality in service delivery, involving of husbands in antenatal care for proper information on maternal health issues, accessing community support through the use of community structures (town announcers, women groups, churches, etc.) with the purpose of emphasising facility delivery, constitution of influential groups to monitor the activities of pregnant women to ensure utilisation of skilled attendants, access to healthcare through free services and availability of providers, trust of health services, and traditional birth attendant training/traditional birth attendant facility collaboration. A total of eight concepts were identified from the concluding statements of steps 1 & 2, and used to develop the Maternal Health-Community Engagement Model (MH-CEM). These were: maternal health literacy, spirituality in healthcare, integrated traditional birth attendants’ role (value, training, and traditional birth attendants/hospital collaboration), trust in health services (by addressing previous experiences, attitude, and fear), improving access to healthcare, culturally acceptable care, husbands’ involvement in women’s health issues, and community support. These concepts formed the core components for the Maternal Health-Community Engagement Model which was developed as the main recommendation to address the core concepts. Central to this Model was the Community Engagement Group (CEG) which was established during the process of engaging the community stakeholders in validating the concepts and drawing up of the guidelines for the Model development. Conclusions and Recommendations: It is believed that the activities of the Community Engagement Group may bring about improved maternal health literacy, a process for working with traditional birth attendants through training and re-orienting them to be promoters of facility delivery when appropriate, and a model for involving husbands, and indeed the entire community, in maternal health issues. Limitations were identified and recommendations for nursing practice, education, and research concluded the study.

Use of skilled care during antenatal visits and delivery is recommended to address the burden of maternal mortality. However there are few facility deliveries and insufficient knowledge of danger signs, especially in rural Tanzania.  The aim of this thesis was to explore the perceptions and challenges that the community faces while preparing for childbirth and to evaluate an intervention of the Home Based Life Saving Skills education programme on knowledge of danger signs, facility delivery and male involvement when delivered by rural community health workers in Tanzania. In Paper I, Focus Group Discussions explored the perceptions and challenges that the community encounters while preparing for childbirth. Structured questionnaires assessed men’s knowledge of danger signs and birth preparedness and complication readiness in Paper II. The effect of the Home Based Life Saving Skills education programme in the community was assessed with a before-and-after evaluation in two districts; one intervention and one comparison. Paper III assessed the effect of the programme on knowledge of danger signs and birth preparedness and facility delivery among women, while Paper IV evaluated its effect on male involvement. The community perceived that all births must be prepared for and that obstetric complication demands hospital care; hence skilled care was favoured. Men’s knowledge of danger signs was limited; only 12% were prepared for childbirth and complications. Preparedness was associated with knowledge of obstetric complications (AOR=1.4 95% CI 1.8 – 2.6). The intervention showed women utilizing antenatal care (four visits) significantly more (43.4 vs 67.8%) with a net effect of 25.3% (95% CI: 16.9 – 33.2; p < .0001). The use of facility delivery improved in the intervention area (75.6 vs 90.2%; p = 0.0002), but with no significant net effect 11.5% (95% CI: -5.1 – 39.6; p = 0.123) when comparing the two districts. Male involvement improved (39.2% vs 80.9%) with a net intervention effect of 41.1% (CI: 28.5 – 53.8; p < .0001). Improvements were demonstrated in men’s knowledge level, in escorting partners for antenatal care and delivery, making birth preparations, and shared decision-making. The intervention, in educating this rural community, is effective in improving knowledge, birth preparedness, male involvement and use of skilled care.

Background Pregnancy and childbirth are normal physiological processes but the internal and external circumstances in which the child is conceived and born affect the life of the mother and child. Every pregnancy is associated with unpredictable risks and complications. Therefore, having a birth preparedness and complication prevention plan including safe motherhood are paramount to reduce maternal and infant mortality rates. Purpose of the study This study aimed to establish the pregnant women’s knowledge, perceptions and practices regarding birth preparedness planning, complication readiness and safe motherhood at Raleigh Fitkin Memorial Hospital to help reduce some of the avoidable causes of maternal and infant mortality rates. Research design and methods An exploratory, descriptive and qualitative research design was used for the study. Women who had delivered within a period of one week were purposively selected from the research site and interviewed using a structured interview guide until saturation of data. Ethical considerations were adhered to and measures of trustworthiness were applied. Giorgi’s analytic method was used for data analysis. Findings The findings revealed that most participants were not well informed about birth preparedness although some had managed to save for baby requirements and hospital fees. Transportation to the hospital for ANC and delivery was a problem to those who ended up delivering their babies at home or on the way to hospital. Knowledge about complications of birth was poor and only a few participants could name bleeding and prolonged labour. Most participants were not sure about safe motherhood, whilst some mentioned contraception and post-natal care. Conclusion Evidence from the study reveal that as much as pregnant women prepare baby’s clothes and money for labour and delivery, psychological preparation and transport preparation seemed poor. Complication readiness was not known by most participants. / Health Studies / M.A. (Health Sciences)

Les taux de mortalité maternelle et néonatale restent importants dans les pays en développement. L’ampleur de ces phénomènes est liée à une constellation de facteurs. Mais une part importante des issues défavorables de la grossesse et de la naissance est attribuable à des causes évitables et des comportements modifiables. Les interventions éducatives prénatales ont été élaborées dans le but d’adresser les facteurs affectant la demande de soins maternels et néonatals efficaces. Les stratégies éducatives ciblant les femmes enceintes incluent les conseils individuels, les sessions de groupes et la combinaison des deux stratégies. Ces stratégies visent à améliorer les connaissances sur les questions de santé maternelle et néonatale et à favoriser l’utilisation adéquate de soins qualifiés et les pratiques hygiéniques à domicile. L’Organisation Mondiale de la Santé (OMS) a diffusé dans les pays en développement des guides de pratiques en soins maternels et néonatals incluant les conseils de préparation à la naissance, lors des visites prénatales de routine. Toutefois, peu de données sont disponibles quant à l’efficacité et l’implantation effective de l’éducation prénatale dans les dits pays. Cette thèse cherche à mieux comprendre l’impact des programmes d’éducation prénatale implantés dans deux contextes à risques maternels et néonatals élevés au Burkina Faso. Rédigée sous forme d’articles, la thèse propose trois objectifs spécifiques : 1) examiner l’efficacité théorique des programmes d’éducation prénatale pour réduire la mortalité maternelle et néonatale dans les pays en développement; 2) évaluer l’association entre différents facteurs organisationnels et l’exposition des femmes aux conseils de préparation à la naissance qui font habituellement partie intégrante des programmes d’éducation prénatale implantés dans les services prénatals de routine; et 3) déterminer l’impact de recevoir des conseils de préparation à la naissance sur la probabilité d’accouchement institutionnel. Pour répondre au premier objectif, une méta-analyse de données issues d’essais randomisés a été effectuée. Concernant les réponses aux deux autres objectifs, les données d’une étude de cohorte rétrospective ont été utilisées. Cette étude observationnelle, conçue spécialement pour la thèse, a été menée dans deux districts à risques maternels et néonatals élevés (Dori et Koupela) du Burkina Faso. Les résultats observés à travers les trois investigations sont utiles pour l’avancement des connaissances et la pratique. La méta-analyse révèle que les interventions éducatives expérimentales sont associées à une réduction de 24% de la mortalité néonatale. Cette réduction atteint 30% dans les milieux à très forte mortalité néonatale. En situation de routine, divers facteurs organisationnels peuvent limiter ou faciliter la transmission des conseils éducatifs aux femmes usagères de soins prénatals. Au, Burkina Faso, les données analysées indiquent des fortes disparités entre les deux districts à l’étude. Les femmes du district de Koupela étaient significativement plus exposées aux conseils que celles de Dori. Au delà de cette disparité régionale, deux autres facteurs organisationnels sont fortement associés à l’exposition des femmes aux conseils de préparation à la naissance lors des visites prénatales de routine. Il s’agit de la disponibilité de supports de communication imagés dans l’établissement et le volume réduit de consultations par jour (moins de 20 consultations en moyenne versus 20 ou plus) augurant de moindres charges de travail pour le personnel. Enfin, les conseils reçus par les femmes sur les signes de complications obstétricales et sur les coûts des soins sont significativement associés à une probabilité plus élevée d’accoucher en institution; et ce, seulement dans le district de Dori où le taux d’accouchements institutionnels était relativement faible. En conclusion, l’éducation prénatale est bénéfique pour la sante maternelle et néonatale. Cependant, l’implantation et les effets sont hétérogènes selon les milieux. D’autres études expérimentales et observationnelles sont requises pour renforcer les évidences et investiguer plus en profondeur les facteurs de réussite afin de mieux orienter l’intervention. Les expérimentations futures devraient mesurer des issues de grossesses relatives à la mère (l’assistance qualifiée, les soins postpartum et la mortalité maternelle). Des études de cohorte prospectives avec des grands échantillons représentatifs permettraient de documenter de façon plus valide les événements et les expositions aux interventions durant la grossesse, l’accouchement et le postpartum. / Maternal and neonatal mortality remain high in developing countries. The magnitude of these phenomena is related to a constellation of factors. But a significant proportion of adverse pregnancy and birth outcome, in poor area, are attributable to preventable and behaviourally modifiable causes. Prenatal educational interventions have been developed in order to address the factors affecting the demand for effective maternal and neonatal care. Educational strategies targeting pregnant women include individual counselling, group sessions, and the combination of both strategies. These strategies aim to improve knowledge on issues related to maternal and newborn health and to promote the appropriate use of skilled care and hygiene practices at home. The World Health Organization (WHO) released practice guidelines in developing countries related to maternal and neonatal care including birth preparedness, during routine prenatal visits. However, few data are available about the effectiveness and implementation of effective prenatal education in these countries. This thesis aims to understand the impact of prenatal education programs in two contexts in Burkina Faso where maternal and neonatal risk are high. Written in the form of articles, the thesis addresses three specific objectives namely to: 1) examine the efficacy of prenatal education programs to reduce maternal and neonatal mortality in developing countries, 2) assess the association between different organizational factors and women’s exposure to birth preparedness messages during routine antenatal care, and 3) determine the impact of receiving birth preparedness advice on the likelihood of institutional delivery. For the first objective, a meta-analysis of data from randomized trials was conducted. To achieve the two other objectives, data from a retrospective cohort study were used. This observational study, designed specifically for the thesis, was conducted in two districts (Dori and Koupela) in Burkina Faso. The meta-analysis showed that educational interventions are associated with a 24% reduction in neonatal mortality. This reduction reached 30% in areas with very high neonatal mortality. In routine situations, organizational factors may limit or facilitate the transmission of educational advice to women using prenatal care. In Burkina Faso, the data indicate significant disparities between the two districts in the study. Women from Koupela district were significantly more exposed to advice than those from Dori. Beyond this regional disparity, two other organizational factors were strongly associated with exposure of women to birth preparedness counselling during routine prenatal visits. The first factor was the availability of print materials and aids (e.g., posters, pictures…), used by health professionals as communication support to provide prenatal clients with advice. The second factor was a lower volume of daily consultations (i.e., less than 20 consultations versus 20 or more) which meant lower workload for staff. Finally, advice received by women concerning signs of obstetric complications and costs of care were associated with a significantly higher likelihood of institutional deliveries but only in the district of Dori where the initial rate of institutional deliveries was relatively low. In conclusion, prenatal education is beneficial for maternal and newborn health. However, implementation and effect heterogeneities exist across contexts. Others experimental and observational studies are required to strengthen the evidence and more thoroughly investigate success factors in order to support policies. Future experiments should focus on maternal outcomes (i.e., skilled birth attendance, postpartum care, and maternal mortality). Prospective cohort studies with large and representative samples would allow for examination of events and exposures to interventions during pregnancy, childbirth, and post-partum.

Les taux de mortalité maternelle et néonatale restent importants dans les pays en développement. L’ampleur de ces phénomènes est liée à une constellation de facteurs. Mais une part importante des issues défavorables de la grossesse et de la naissance est attribuable à des causes évitables et des comportements modifiables. Les interventions éducatives prénatales ont été élaborées dans le but d’adresser les facteurs affectant la demande de soins maternels et néonatals efficaces. Les stratégies éducatives ciblant les femmes enceintes incluent les conseils individuels, les sessions de groupes et la combinaison des deux stratégies. Ces stratégies visent à améliorer les connaissances sur les questions de santé maternelle et néonatale et à favoriser l’utilisation adéquate de soins qualifiés et les pratiques hygiéniques à domicile. L’Organisation Mondiale de la Santé (OMS) a diffusé dans les pays en développement des guides de pratiques en soins maternels et néonatals incluant les conseils de préparation à la naissance, lors des visites prénatales de routine. Toutefois, peu de données sont disponibles quant à l’efficacité et l’implantation effective de l’éducation prénatale dans les dits pays. Cette thèse cherche à mieux comprendre l’impact des programmes d’éducation prénatale implantés dans deux contextes à risques maternels et néonatals élevés au Burkina Faso. Rédigée sous forme d’articles, la thèse propose trois objectifs spécifiques : 1) examiner l’efficacité théorique des programmes d’éducation prénatale pour réduire la mortalité maternelle et néonatale dans les pays en développement; 2) évaluer l’association entre différents facteurs organisationnels et l’exposition des femmes aux conseils de préparation à la naissance qui font habituellement partie intégrante des programmes d’éducation prénatale implantés dans les services prénatals de routine; et 3) déterminer l’impact de recevoir des conseils de préparation à la naissance sur la probabilité d’accouchement institutionnel. Pour répondre au premier objectif, une méta-analyse de données issues d’essais randomisés a été effectuée. Concernant les réponses aux deux autres objectifs, les données d’une étude de cohorte rétrospective ont été utilisées. Cette étude observationnelle, conçue spécialement pour la thèse, a été menée dans deux districts à risques maternels et néonatals élevés (Dori et Koupela) du Burkina Faso. Les résultats observés à travers les trois investigations sont utiles pour l’avancement des connaissances et la pratique. La méta-analyse révèle que les interventions éducatives expérimentales sont associées à une réduction de 24% de la mortalité néonatale. Cette réduction atteint 30% dans les milieux à très forte mortalité néonatale. En situation de routine, divers facteurs organisationnels peuvent limiter ou faciliter la transmission des conseils éducatifs aux femmes usagères de soins prénatals. Au, Burkina Faso, les données analysées indiquent des fortes disparités entre les deux districts à l’étude. Les femmes du district de Koupela étaient significativement plus exposées aux conseils que celles de Dori. Au delà de cette disparité régionale, deux autres facteurs organisationnels sont fortement associés à l’exposition des femmes aux conseils de préparation à la naissance lors des visites prénatales de routine. Il s’agit de la disponibilité de supports de communication imagés dans l’établissement et le volume réduit de consultations par jour (moins de 20 consultations en moyenne versus 20 ou plus) augurant de moindres charges de travail pour le personnel. Enfin, les conseils reçus par les femmes sur les signes de complications obstétricales et sur les coûts des soins sont significativement associés à une probabilité plus élevée d’accoucher en institution; et ce, seulement dans le district de Dori où le taux d’accouchements institutionnels était relativement faible. En conclusion, l’éducation prénatale est bénéfique pour la sante maternelle et néonatale. Cependant, l’implantation et les effets sont hétérogènes selon les milieux. D’autres études expérimentales et observationnelles sont requises pour renforcer les évidences et investiguer plus en profondeur les facteurs de réussite afin de mieux orienter l’intervention. Les expérimentations futures devraient mesurer des issues de grossesses relatives à la mère (l’assistance qualifiée, les soins postpartum et la mortalité maternelle). Des études de cohorte prospectives avec des grands échantillons représentatifs permettraient de documenter de façon plus valide les événements et les expositions aux interventions durant la grossesse, l’accouchement et le postpartum. / Maternal and neonatal mortality remain high in developing countries. The magnitude of these phenomena is related to a constellation of factors. But a significant proportion of adverse pregnancy and birth outcome, in poor area, are attributable to preventable and behaviourally modifiable causes. Prenatal educational interventions have been developed in order to address the factors affecting the demand for effective maternal and neonatal care. Educational strategies targeting pregnant women include individual counselling, group sessions, and the combination of both strategies. These strategies aim to improve knowledge on issues related to maternal and newborn health and to promote the appropriate use of skilled care and hygiene practices at home. The World Health Organization (WHO) released practice guidelines in developing countries related to maternal and neonatal care including birth preparedness, during routine prenatal visits. However, few data are available about the effectiveness and implementation of effective prenatal education in these countries. This thesis aims to understand the impact of prenatal education programs in two contexts in Burkina Faso where maternal and neonatal risk are high. Written in the form of articles, the thesis addresses three specific objectives namely to: 1) examine the efficacy of prenatal education programs to reduce maternal and neonatal mortality in developing countries, 2) assess the association between different organizational factors and women’s exposure to birth preparedness messages during routine antenatal care, and 3) determine the impact of receiving birth preparedness advice on the likelihood of institutional delivery. For the first objective, a meta-analysis of data from randomized trials was conducted. To achieve the two other objectives, data from a retrospective cohort study were used. This observational study, designed specifically for the thesis, was conducted in two districts (Dori and Koupela) in Burkina Faso. The meta-analysis showed that educational interventions are associated with a 24% reduction in neonatal mortality. This reduction reached 30% in areas with very high neonatal mortality. In routine situations, organizational factors may limit or facilitate the transmission of educational advice to women using prenatal care. In Burkina Faso, the data indicate significant disparities between the two districts in the study. Women from Koupela district were significantly more exposed to advice than those from Dori. Beyond this regional disparity, two other organizational factors were strongly associated with exposure of women to birth preparedness counselling during routine prenatal visits. The first factor was the availability of print materials and aids (e.g., posters, pictures…), used by health professionals as communication support to provide prenatal clients with advice. The second factor was a lower volume of daily consultations (i.e., less than 20 consultations versus 20 or more) which meant lower workload for staff. Finally, advice received by women concerning signs of obstetric complications and costs of care were associated with a significantly higher likelihood of institutional deliveries but only in the district of Dori where the initial rate of institutional deliveries was relatively low. In conclusion, prenatal education is beneficial for maternal and newborn health. However, implementation and effect heterogeneities exist across contexts. Others experimental and observational studies are required to strengthen the evidence and more thoroughly investigate success factors in order to support policies. Future experiments should focus on maternal outcomes (i.e., skilled birth attendance, postpartum care, and maternal mortality). Prospective cohort studies with large and representative samples would allow for examination of events and exposures to interventions during pregnancy, childbirth, and post-partum.