This dissertation investigates the role of black African slaves and servants in relation to Italian Renaissance anxieties about them as ‘domestic enemies.’ Three case studies form the basis of this investigation, and include late Renaissance paintings of Judith and Holofernes, the Rape of Lucretia, and Bathsheba at her Bath. Virtually none of the biblical or classical textual accounts of these subjects ascribes an ethnicity to the servile figures. Artists, by depicting black African men, women and children as participants in scenes of threatened or enacted sexual violence, added tension to the iconography. To uncover contemporary cultural attitudes about domestic slaves and servants, documents and textual sources, such as poems and short stories, are examined. These sources provide insight about the types of fears and prejudices that people had about black domestics as potentially insidious, or even nefarious. By including such figures in their paintings, artists were able to exploit the contemporary fascination that people had with the potentially threatening nature of black slaves and servants, thereby adding a degree of titillation to their artworks. The presence of black Africans in narrative paintings evoked deeply ambivalent attitudes about these figures as both faithful and potentially threatening. / Thesis (Ph.D, Art History) -- Queen's University, 2014-02-13 15:34:27.666

Argument: Hypertension is a main contributing risk factor to many cardiovascular diseases and may be the cause or the result of cardiovascular dysfunction. Black Africans, especially, suffer from hypertension because of lifestyle changes that occur during westernisation, which may lead to sympatho-adrenal hyperactivity. Vascular endothelial growth factor-A (VEGF-A) and angiopoietin-2 (Ang-2) are regulators of angiogenesis and are significantly up regulated during states of vascular dysfunction. Levels of angiogenic factors are unknown for African people and may not be the same as levels thus far reported for Caucasians. Aims: The aim of this study is firstly, to determine whether differences exist regarding the levels of VEGF-A and Ang-2 in urbanised compared to rural black Africans and secondly, to determine whether increased levels of VEGF-A and Ang-2 factors are related to hypertension in black Africans. Methodology: This is a sub study that is based upon the Prospective Urban and Rural Epidemiological (PURE) study. Apparently healthy, fasting African men and women (N=272, aged 35 to 50 years) from the North-West province of South Africa were selected by a medical doctor to participate in this study. Groups were stratified according to gender and urbanisation status based upon information derived from sociodemographic questionnaires. Cardiovascular parameters (Omron HEM-757), pulse wave velocity (PWV) (Compiler SP), plasma angiogenic factor levels (ELISA) and anthropometric measures were determined. An independent t-test and Pearson Chi-square test were used to compare urban and rural data, followed by an analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) while correcting for confounders (age, body mass index, physical activity and tobacco usage). ANCOVAs (corrected for confounders) were applied where hypertensive and normotensive groups were compared within the whole group and urbanised groups. Correlations, correcting for confounders, between cardiovascular variables and angiogenic factors were determined within the whole group and urbanised groups. Results and conclusion: Plasma VEGF-A values for all black Africans were very low while the ANG-2 levels were elevated compared to control values for Caucasians (normotensive and hypertensive) in literature. Urbanised men were more overweight and indicated a higher incidence of hypertension (42.47%) and elevated VEGF-A levels, but lower Ang-2 levels compared to rural men. Urbanised women were generally overweight, physically less active and smoked less, but indicated higher diastolic blood pressure (BP), VEGF-A levels and lower PWV compared with their rural counterparts. Ang-2 levels indicate a negative relationship to diastolic BP data in rural women. No relationships between hypertensive individuals and high angiogenic factor levels were uncovered. Conclusive evidence suggested that angiogenic factor levels were affected more by urbanisation than by the state of hypertension. If low levels of VEGF-2 occur, ANG-2 stimulation and properties may be altered, thereby switching ANG-2 from an anti-angiogenic to a pro-angiogenic molecule, inferring blood vessel destabilisation and vascular dysfunction, such as is observed in hypertensive urbanised men. Higher ANG-2 levels may result in Tie-2 receptor down regulation, hence causing VEGF-A levels to be lower. Further study is needed to ascertain this mechanism since Tie-2 receptor activity was not determined in this study. / Thesis (M.Sc. (Physiology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2009.

Argument: Hypertension is a main contributing risk factor to many cardiovascular diseases and may be the cause or the result of cardiovascular dysfunction. Black Africans, especially, suffer from hypertension because of lifestyle changes that occur during westernisation, which may lead to sympatho-adrenal hyperactivity. Vascular endothelial growth factor-A (VEGF-A) and angiopoietin-2 (Ang-2) are regulators of angiogenesis and are significantly up regulated during states of vascular dysfunction. Levels of angiogenic factors are unknown for African people and may not be the same as levels thus far reported for Caucasians. Aims: The aim of this study is firstly, to determine whether differences exist regarding the levels of VEGF-A and Ang-2 in urbanised compared to rural black Africans and secondly, to determine whether increased levels of VEGF-A and Ang-2 factors are related to hypertension in black Africans. Methodology: This is a sub study that is based upon the Prospective Urban and Rural Epidemiological (PURE) study. Apparently healthy, fasting African men and women (N=272, aged 35 to 50 years) from the North-West province of South Africa were selected by a medical doctor to participate in this study. Groups were stratified according to gender and urbanisation status based upon information derived from sociodemographic questionnaires. Cardiovascular parameters (Omron HEM-757), pulse wave velocity (PWV) (Compiler SP), plasma angiogenic factor levels (ELISA) and anthropometric measures were determined. An independent t-test and Pearson Chi-square test were used to compare urban and rural data, followed by an analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) while correcting for confounders (age, body mass index, physical activity and tobacco usage). ANCOVAs (corrected for confounders) were applied where hypertensive and normotensive groups were compared within the whole group and urbanised groups. Correlations, correcting for confounders, between cardiovascular variables and angiogenic factors were determined within the whole group and urbanised groups. Results and conclusion: Plasma VEGF-A values for all black Africans were very low while the ANG-2 levels were elevated compared to control values for Caucasians (normotensive and hypertensive) in literature. Urbanised men were more overweight and indicated a higher incidence of hypertension (42.47%) and elevated VEGF-A levels, but lower Ang-2 levels compared to rural men. Urbanised women were generally overweight, physically less active and smoked less, but indicated higher diastolic blood pressure (BP), VEGF-A levels and lower PWV compared with their rural counterparts. Ang-2 levels indicate a negative relationship to diastolic BP data in rural women. No relationships between hypertensive individuals and high angiogenic factor levels were uncovered. Conclusive evidence suggested that angiogenic factor levels were affected more by urbanisation than by the state of hypertension. If low levels of VEGF-2 occur, ANG-2 stimulation and properties may be altered, thereby switching ANG-2 from an anti-angiogenic to a pro-angiogenic molecule, inferring blood vessel destabilisation and vascular dysfunction, such as is observed in hypertensive urbanised men. Higher ANG-2 levels may result in Tie-2 receptor down regulation, hence causing VEGF-A levels to be lower. Further study is needed to ascertain this mechanism since Tie-2 receptor activity was not determined in this study. / Thesis (M.Sc. (Physiology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2009.

Background. While much progress has been made, HIV remains a major global public health problem. South Africa remains home to the highest number of people living with HIV (7.1 million) in the world. Despite remarkable progress in the past decade, adolescent girls and young women aged 15-24 (AGYW) remain at higher risk of HIV exposure and infection than other groups. We do not know enough about AGYW HIV knowledge and perceptions, although it is likely an important factor to consider in AGYW's HIV risk. This paper investigates knowledge and perceptions about HIV risk behaviours and explores associations with demographic and behavioral characteristics among AGYW in South Africa. Methods. This sub-study is based on the 2012 South African National HIV Prevalence, Incidence and Behaviour Survey, a cross-sectional population-based household survey. A multistage stratified cluster sampling approach was employed to select the study population. Multivariate logistic regression was used to determine associations or factors which were associated with HIV knowledge. Results. Among the sample of 3700 AGYW aged 15-24 years, White [OR=2.44 (95% CI: 1.48-4.03), p=0.001] and Indian [OR=3.85 (95% CI: 2.39-6.18), p=0.000] AGYW were associated with high HIV knowledge compared to Black Africans. AGYW in urban informal [OR=0.64 (95% CI: 0.45-0.90), p=0.011] and rural informal [OR=0.57 (95% CI: 0.33-0.98), p=0.043] were associated with low HIV knowledge compared to urban formal settings. AGYW in Eastern Cape [OR=0.69 (95% CI: 0.48-1.00), p=0.048], KwaZulu-Natal [OR=0.69 (95% CI: 0.48-0.99), p=0.044], North West [OR=0.50 (95% CI: 0.32-0.77), p=0.002] and Limpopo [OR=0.44 (95% CI: 0.27-0.71), p=0.001] provinces were associated with low HIV knowledge compared to AGYW in Western Cape. Unemployed AGYW were associated with low HIV knowledge [OR=0.57, p=0.001]. While AGYW with higher levels of education: grade 12 [OR=1.66 (95% CI: 1.04-2.64), p=0.034] and tertiary [OR=2.68 (95% CI: 1.47-4.89), p=0.001] were associated with high HIV knowledge. AGYW having had sex in the last 12 months were associated with high HIV knowledge [OR=1.70 (95% CI: 1.08-2.72), p=0.023]. On the contrary, having multiple sexual partners in the last 12 months was associated with low HIV knowledge [OR= 0.60 (95%CI: 0.39-0.99), p=0.045] compared to AGYW that had 1 sexual partner in the last 12 months. AGYW with a low risk of alcohol use were associated with high HIV knowledge [OR=1.4 (95% CI: 1.02-1.87), p=0.039] compared to AGYW that abstained from alcohol. The final multivariate logistic regression model showed that AGYW in urban informal settings have low HIV knowledge [aOR=0.59 (95% CI: 0.35-0.99), p=0.046] among all geotypes. Conclusion. Overall, the main findings show a lack of knowledge among AGYW across race, geotype, province and sexual activity. More specifically that low HIV knowledge was associated with AGYW who were Black South Africans, living in informal settings, from Eastern Cape, KwaZulu Natal, North West and Limpopo, unemployed, had lower levels of education, and have multiple sexual partners. However, in the final multivariate analysis, only geotype stood out, indicating that there is an HIV knowledge deficit in urban informal settings. This can be addressed through the promotion of knowledge through education, equitable and accessible availability of education and sexual and reproductive health services, and HCT and support among AGYW living in urban informal settings.

Non-communicable diseases (NCDs), also known as chronic diseases of lifestyle, cause the greatest burden of disease globally. The major risk factors for NCDs are hypertension, hyperglycaemia, high cholesterol, tobacco smoking, alcohol abuse, overweight/obesity and physical inactivity. NCDs in South Africa are increasing in black South Africans with the transition from rural to urban areas. The transitions have resulted in a change in lifestyle. Regular moderate intensity physical activity (PA) has many health benefits and decreases the risk for NCDs. PA is often determined by means of questionnaires, motion sensors (pedometers and accelerometers), heart rate and accelerometry combined. Within the South African context PA has traditionally been determined with internationally composed questionnaires adapted for South Africa. In South Africa the relationship between PA and risk factors for NCDs has not been investigated in populations in transition, and limited information on the relationship between change in PA and the change in risk factors in a South African population is available. The objectives of this study was to determine the correlation between the adapted Baecke physical activity questionnaire and the International Physical Activity Questionnaire (short version) (IPAQ-S), the changes in PA and how the changes relate to changes in BMI, and finally the relationship between the changes in PA and the changes in the risk factors for NCDs of black South Africans. The study forms part of the baseline and five year follow-up of the South African leg of the Prospective Urban and Rural Epidemiological (PURE) study. This study is a longitudinal study of which the baseline data was allocated in 2005 and the five year follow-up allocated in 2010. 2 000 participants aged 30 years and older were recruited for the initial study – 1 000 urbanised (from Ikageng), and 1 000 rural black adults (from Ganyesa, Moswana and Tlakgameng). Data, including the PA questionnaires (Baecke & IPAQ-S) were collected by a specialised multidisciplinary team. After signing an informed consent form, questionnaires were completed during individual interviews and conducted by extensively trained fieldworkers in the language of the participants’ choice. The variables used in this study were anthropometric measurements, blood pressure, serum lipids and fasting blood glucose. BMI was calculated from the body weight divided by the height squared. Statistical analysis was performed using SPSS for windows (Version 21.0). Descriptive statistics were performed to determine the characteristics of the participants. The relationship between Baecke and IPAQ-S was determined by means of a partial correlation adjusting for age and BMI. Linear regression analyses were used to determine the relationship between the changes in PA (dependent variable) and BMI (predictor variable) and then adjusted for gender and age. Where a significant relationship was observed (in the case of setting, urban versus rural) separate analyses were performed for the rural and urban participants; likewise the relationship between the changes in PAI (dependant variable) and the change in the risk factors for NCDs (predictor variable) was determined by means of linear regression analysis, and also adjusted for gender, change in age and setting (urban/rural). The results from this study indicated that a weak but significant relationship was found between the Baecke and IPAQ-S (Spearman r = 0.243; p = 0.00) when adjusted for age and BMI. Significant differences were found between rural and urban participants for age and BMI in 2005, where the urban participants where older and reported a higher BMI compared to the rural participants. Rural women gained significantly more weight than the urban women. The PAI in the urban participants increased from 2005 (6.40 ± 1.84) to 2010 (7.50 ± 1.40), but decreased in rural participants from 2005 (8.21 ± 1.48) to 2010 (5.10 ± 1.54). Change in BMI was significantly inverse associated with change in PA for the urban population after adjusting for gender, setting (rural/urban) and change in age (β = -0.10; p = 0.004). Significant differences were found for resting systolic blood pressure (SBP) for the rural (129.72 ± 23.30) and urban (137.33 ± 25.14) participants as well as the diastolic blood pressure (DBP) of rural (86.16 ± 14.48) and urban (89.28 ± 14.46), fasting glucose of rural (4.88 ± 1.23) and urban (5.10 ± 1.86), triglycerides of rural (1.21 ± 0.64) and urban (1.38 ± 0.92) and physical activity index (PAI) of rural (8.21 ± 1.48) and urban (6.40 ± 1.84) in 2005. There were significant changes in the high density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) and in the low density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C). Although the overall PAI decreased from 2005 (7.30 ± 1.90) to 2010 (6.46 ± 1.85), it increased in urban participants (6.40 ± 1.84 – 7.50 ± 1.40) and decreased in rural participants (8.21 ± 1.48 – 5.10 ± 1.54). A significant negative relationship between changes in PAI and changes in blood pressure (systolic and diastolic), total cholesterol and LDL-cholesterol was found when adjusted for gender. When changes in PA and changes in risk factors were separated according to gender, a significant negative relationship was found between PA and diastolic blood pressure (β -0.63; p 0.02) in the male population, and a significant negative relationship for females between PA and systolic blood pressure (β -1.05; p 0.002), diastolic blood pressure (β -0.59; p 0.003), total cholesterol (β -0.05; p 0.01) and LDL-cholesterol (β -0.07; p 0.00). In conclusion, the study found that the low but significant correlation between PAI assessed with the Baeck questionnaire and IPAQ-S makes both questionnaires applicable for the South African context, however the Baecke questionnaire is based on various domains for PA, while the IPAQ-S report on time spent in physical activity. Over the 5-year period PA decreased in this black South African population with a concomitant increase in BMI. Biological risk factors for NCDs increased from 2005 to 2010. The change in PA was inversely related to changes in total blood pressure. Future in PA interventions would be beneficial in the management of hypertension in the at risk South African black population. / PhD (Human Movement Science), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014

Non-communicable diseases (NCDs), also known as chronic diseases of lifestyle, cause the greatest burden of disease globally. The major risk factors for NCDs are hypertension, hyperglycaemia, high cholesterol, tobacco smoking, alcohol abuse, overweight/obesity and physical inactivity. NCDs in South Africa are increasing in black South Africans with the transition from rural to urban areas. The transitions have resulted in a change in lifestyle. Regular moderate intensity physical activity (PA) has many health benefits and decreases the risk for NCDs. PA is often determined by means of questionnaires, motion sensors (pedometers and accelerometers), heart rate and accelerometry combined. Within the South African context PA has traditionally been determined with internationally composed questionnaires adapted for South Africa. In South Africa the relationship between PA and risk factors for NCDs has not been investigated in populations in transition, and limited information on the relationship between change in PA and the change in risk factors in a South African population is available. The objectives of this study was to determine the correlation between the adapted Baecke physical activity questionnaire and the International Physical Activity Questionnaire (short version) (IPAQ-S), the changes in PA and how the changes relate to changes in BMI, and finally the relationship between the changes in PA and the changes in the risk factors for NCDs of black South Africans. The study forms part of the baseline and five year follow-up of the South African leg of the Prospective Urban and Rural Epidemiological (PURE) study. This study is a longitudinal study of which the baseline data was allocated in 2005 and the five year follow-up allocated in 2010. 2 000 participants aged 30 years and older were recruited for the initial study – 1 000 urbanised (from Ikageng), and 1 000 rural black adults (from Ganyesa, Moswana and Tlakgameng). Data, including the PA questionnaires (Baecke & IPAQ-S) were collected by a specialised multidisciplinary team. After signing an informed consent form, questionnaires were completed during individual interviews and conducted by extensively trained fieldworkers in the language of the participants’ choice. The variables used in this study were anthropometric measurements, blood pressure, serum lipids and fasting blood glucose. BMI was calculated from the body weight divided by the height squared. Statistical analysis was performed using SPSS for windows (Version 21.0). Descriptive statistics were performed to determine the characteristics of the participants. The relationship between Baecke and IPAQ-S was determined by means of a partial correlation adjusting for age and BMI. Linear regression analyses were used to determine the relationship between the changes in PA (dependent variable) and BMI (predictor variable) and then adjusted for gender and age. Where a significant relationship was observed (in the case of setting, urban versus rural) separate analyses were performed for the rural and urban participants; likewise the relationship between the changes in PAI (dependant variable) and the change in the risk factors for NCDs (predictor variable) was determined by means of linear regression analysis, and also adjusted for gender, change in age and setting (urban/rural). The results from this study indicated that a weak but significant relationship was found between the Baecke and IPAQ-S (Spearman r = 0.243; p = 0.00) when adjusted for age and BMI. Significant differences were found between rural and urban participants for age and BMI in 2005, where the urban participants where older and reported a higher BMI compared to the rural participants. Rural women gained significantly more weight than the urban women. The PAI in the urban participants increased from 2005 (6.40 ± 1.84) to 2010 (7.50 ± 1.40), but decreased in rural participants from 2005 (8.21 ± 1.48) to 2010 (5.10 ± 1.54). Change in BMI was significantly inverse associated with change in PA for the urban population after adjusting for gender, setting (rural/urban) and change in age (β = -0.10; p = 0.004). Significant differences were found for resting systolic blood pressure (SBP) for the rural (129.72 ± 23.30) and urban (137.33 ± 25.14) participants as well as the diastolic blood pressure (DBP) of rural (86.16 ± 14.48) and urban (89.28 ± 14.46), fasting glucose of rural (4.88 ± 1.23) and urban (5.10 ± 1.86), triglycerides of rural (1.21 ± 0.64) and urban (1.38 ± 0.92) and physical activity index (PAI) of rural (8.21 ± 1.48) and urban (6.40 ± 1.84) in 2005. There were significant changes in the high density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) and in the low density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C). Although the overall PAI decreased from 2005 (7.30 ± 1.90) to 2010 (6.46 ± 1.85), it increased in urban participants (6.40 ± 1.84 – 7.50 ± 1.40) and decreased in rural participants (8.21 ± 1.48 – 5.10 ± 1.54). A significant negative relationship between changes in PAI and changes in blood pressure (systolic and diastolic), total cholesterol and LDL-cholesterol was found when adjusted for gender. When changes in PA and changes in risk factors were separated according to gender, a significant negative relationship was found between PA and diastolic blood pressure (β -0.63; p 0.02) in the male population, and a significant negative relationship for females between PA and systolic blood pressure (β -1.05; p 0.002), diastolic blood pressure (β -0.59; p 0.003), total cholesterol (β -0.05; p 0.01) and LDL-cholesterol (β -0.07; p 0.00). In conclusion, the study found that the low but significant correlation between PAI assessed with the Baeck questionnaire and IPAQ-S makes both questionnaires applicable for the South African context, however the Baecke questionnaire is based on various domains for PA, while the IPAQ-S report on time spent in physical activity. Over the 5-year period PA decreased in this black South African population with a concomitant increase in BMI. Biological risk factors for NCDs increased from 2005 to 2010. The change in PA was inversely related to changes in total blood pressure. Future in PA interventions would be beneficial in the management of hypertension in the at risk South African black population. / PhD (Human Movement Science), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014

Philosophiae Doctor - PhD / In Black and African theology, especially in the North American and African contexts, there is consensus that claims of people of European descent being regarded as God’s chosen people, are heretical and serve to legitimise the domination in the name of differences with regard to race, class and culture. Such discourses may be understood to be a sustained critique, rejection, and even condemnation, of the injustices of imperialism, colonialism, human subjugation like slavery, and racial supremacy. In constructive responses to racial supremacy, claims have been made in certain political discourses, cultural philosophies and theologies, that instead, Black Africans who currently reside in Africa and those Black Africans whose ancestry is vest in Africa, may be regarded as God’s chosen people, and Africa as God’s chosen country. Such views are also expressed in some Christian circles and are discussed in the context of certain historical and contemporary North-American, and Pan-African theologies.

>Magister Scientiae - MSc / The first two official AIDS cases were diagnosed in South Africa in 1982. During the same period of the 1980s, the black/ African population was experiencing an accelerated fertility decline, following a period of accelerated mortality decline. Demographers invoked the demographic transition theory to explain the observed mortality and fertility decline. According to the demographic transition theory, mortality and fertility rates would continue declining to low, post transitional levels with increasing modernization. The relatively higher prevalence of HIV/ AIDS estimated among black/ African South Africans is expected to alter their demographic transition. This research investigates the impact of HIV/ AIDS on the demographic transition of black/ Africans by 2021.

Thesis (Ph.D. (Human Movement Science))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2010.

Thesis (Ph.D. (Human Movement Science))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2010.