La propagation des ondes ultrasonores à travers des cristaux phononiques CP à deux dimensions 2D constitués de diffuseurs solides dans des matrices solide et fluide est ici étudiée, ainsi que la caractérisation de ces milieux et leur application à l’imagerie acoustique. Les techniques expérimentales utilisées permettent une mesure complète des champs transmis à travers les cristaux. Les études sont menées dans des bandes fréquentielles autorisant les effets de réfraction négative indispensables à l’obtention d’une résolution inférieure à la limite de diffraction (super-résolution). De manière à compléter les analyses, différents outils théoriques sont exploités Décomposition en Ondes Planes et Eléments Finis, notamment.La première partie du document concerne la réalisation et la caractérisation de cristaux phononiques possédant des propriétés nécessaires à la réalisation de systèmes d’imagerie acoustique réfraction négative, contours équi-fréquences circulaires, accord d’indice, accord d’impédance. Cette première étude est menée sur un cristal à matrice solide, elle met en relief la possibilité de générer différents modes de Bloch au cours de la propagation. L’accord d’indice avec l’eau n’étant cependant pas obtenu, la seconde partie porte sur la réfraction négative et la focalisation des ondes à travers un CP à matrice fluide. Les propriétés du CP déterminées, le dernier chapitre s’attache à évaluer les performances des systèmes d’imagerie développés : dynamique et résolution. / This investigation deals with wave propagation in two dimensional phononic crystals (PC) made of solid scatterers embedded in solid or fluid matrices. After characterizing such composite materials, their application to acoustic imaging is brought to the forth. The ultrasonic techniques used in the experiments allow the complete measurement of the acoustic transmitted fields and the investigations concern frequency bandwidth able to exhibit negative refraction allowing Oie super-resolution effects. In order to complete the analysis, different theoretical tools are used: Plane Wave Expansion (PWE) and Finite Elements Method (FEM).The first part of this work deals with the realization and characterization of PC to be introduced into acoustic imaging devices (lenses) based on negative refraction. Special attention is given to characteristics such as circular equi-frequency contours, or index and impedance matching. However, during the acoustic wave propagation in a solid PC immersed in water, the presence of different Bloch modes contributing to the transmission of ultrasound is revealed and the index matching was not possible to obtain. Therefore the second part of the manuscript deals with negative refraction and waves focusing through a PC filled with a fluid. After determining the crystal properties, last chapter is devoted to the evaluation of the performances of acoustic imaging systems based on phononic lens.

Le piégeage optique se présente maintenant, depuis quelques décennies, comme une thématique majeure à l'intersection de diverses disciplines. Depuis les résultats d'Ashkin, de nombreux travaux ont été effectués dans le piégeage et le guidage d'objets physiques (particules, molécules, bactéries, etc.) de toutes tailles. Ces derniers caractériseront alors, devant la longueur d'onde, le domaine optique dans lequel nous nous placerons (Rayleigh, Mie, Optique géométrique).Notre travail porte donc sur l'étude des propriétés de chaînes linéaires périodiques de gouttelettes (huile), placées dans l'eau, et soumises à deux faisceaux laser horizontaux contra-propageants de profil gaussien. Nous démontrons qu'il est possible d'établir un ordre spatial sur un ensemble de grosses gouttes (devant la longueur d'onde) suivant une structure périodique. L'originalité d'un tel système réside dans le fait que la lumière peut alors être refocalisée par l'ensemble des gouttes espacées périodiquement. Cette périodicité peut ainsi, dans certains cas, conférer au faisceau une refocalisation périodique au sein du réseau. Cette première étude, en limite statique, nous permet ainsi de mettre en évidence les conditions de couplage des modes liés aux chaînes de gouttes. En particulier, nous caractérisons la présence de modes de Bloch où le faisceau se propage avec une périodicité équivalente à celle du réseau. Cela nous amène à remarquer que ces conditions modales sont soumises au paramètre de phase gaussien "Thêta" (phase de Gouy). Ainsi, bien que structuré à une échelle largement supérieure, nous mettons en évidence théoriquement des propriétés analogues à celle des cristaux photoniques, conférées par la périodicité des chaînes de gouttes. Ce qui nous permet, en conséquence, de démontrer l'existence de bandes interdites, nous amenant à définir un ensemble de modes guidants/nonguidants de cette chaîne. Cette étude statique est, par la suite, étendue d'un point de vue dynamique en considérant l'effet des forces optiques sur les gouttes. Nous démontrons ainsi qu'il est possible de piéger optiquement de telles gouttes sur des états d'équilibres stables. Au-delà desquels nous mettons en évidence, à travers une étude paramétrique, l'existence de modes oscillants périodiques ou pseudo-périodiques. Enfin, nous prenons en compte les phénomènes de collisions par coalescence, entraînant une réorganisation des répartitions de champs optiques qui peuvent se traduire par de nouvelles configurations de piégeage / Optical trapping appears now, since a few decades, as a major theme at the intersection of variousdisciplines. Since the results of Ashkin, many works were made in the trapping and the guidance of physical objects (particles, molecules, bacteria, etc.) of any sizes. The latter will characterize then, in front of the wavelength, the optical domain in which we shall take place (Rayleigh, Mie, Geometrical Optics).Our work thus concerns the study of the properties of periodic linear chains of droplets (oil), placed in water, and submitted to two counter-propagating horizontal laser beams of gaussian profile. We show that it is possible to establish a spatial order of a set of large drops (in front of the wavelength) in a periodic structure. The originality of such a system lies in the fact that the light can then be refocused by the set of periodically spaced drops. This periodicity may thus, in some cases, confer on the beam a periodic refocusing within the network. This first study, in static limit, allows us to identify the conditions of coupling modes associated with drop channels. In particular, we characterize the presence of Bloch modes where the beam propagates with similar frequency to that of the network. This leads us to note that these modal conditions are submitt to the gaussian phase parameter "Thêta" (Gouy phase). Thus, although structured at a widely higher scale, we highlight theoretically similar properties to that of the photonic crystals, conferred by the periodicity of the chains of drops. This allows us, consequently, to demonstrate the existence of bandgaps, leading us to define a set of guiding/not-guiding modes of this chain. This static study, thereafter, is extended from a dynamic point of view by taking into account the effect of the optical forces on the drops. We show that it is possible to optically trap such drops on stable equilibrium states. Beyond of which we highlight, through a parametric study, the existence of periodic or pseudo-periodic oscillating modes.Finally, we take into account the phenomena of collisions by coalescence, involving a reorganization of the distributions of optical fields which can result in new configurations of trapping.

The scattering of waves by a finite thin plate in a two-dimensional wave guide and an array of finite thin plates, in the presence of subsonic mean flow, are formulated using a mode matching technique. The influence of mean flow on trapped modes in the vicinity of a finite thin plate in a two-dimensional wave guide is then investigated by putting the amplitude of the forcing term to zero in the scattering problem. The conditions for complex resonances are found, and numerical results are computed. The influence of mean flow on Rayleigh-Bloch modes is investigated by using a similar methodology. The condition for embedded trapped modes to exist is introduced next, and then numerical results for embedded trapped modes without mean flow are presented. Complex resonances without mean flow are then found by fixing the geometry of the waveguide. The influence of mean flow on complex resonances and embedded trapped modes is investigated subsequently. In addition, the investigation of scattering coefficients is discussed when the frequency of an incident wave is near the real part of the frequency of complex resonances or embedded trapped modes. Embedded trapped modes near an indentation in a strip wave guide, which may correspond to a two-dimensional acoustic wave guide or a channel of uniform water depth in water waves, are also found. Modes are sought which are either symmetric or anti-symmetric about the centreline of the guide and the centre of the indentation. In each case, a simple approximate solution is found numerically. Full solutions are then found by using a Galerkin approach in which the singularity near the indentation edge is modelled by choosing proper special functions. The final part of the thesis is devoted to spinning modes (Rayleigh-Bloch modes) in a cylindrical waveguide in the presence of radial fins. A mode matching technique is used to obtain the potential, and the coefficients in the expansion are found numerically by using an efficient Galerkin procedure. In addition, an existence proof for modes symmetric about the centre of the guide and the centre of the section with radial fins is given by applying a variational approach. The connection between Rayleigh-Bloch modes and trapped modes is discussed thereafter, and numerical results for a number of geometric configurations are presented.

Dans cette thèse, nous avons étudié l'impact considérable de désordre aléatoire sur le transport de la lumière lente dans les guides à cristaux photoniques 1D, c'est-à-dire la localisation de la lumière. Les mesures en champ proche, les simulations statistiques et le modèle théorique révèlent l'existence d'une limite inférieure de l’extension spatiale des modes localisés. Nous avons également présenté que le niveau de désordre et l’extension spatiale de mode localisé individuelle sont liés par la masse effective de photons plutôt que la vitesse de groupe considérant en général.Deuxièmement, les systèmes hybrides d'atomes froids et des guides à cristaux photoniques ont été reconnus comme un approche prometteuse pour l'ingénierie grande interaction lumière-matière au niveau des atomes et des photons individuels. Dans cette thèse, nous avons étudié la physique, à savoir le transport de la lumière dans des guides de nanophotonique périodiques couplées à des atomes à deux niveaux. Notre expression semi-analytique développée est générale et peut rapidement caractériser le couplage entre les atomes froids et les photons guidées. Pour surmonter les difficultés techniques considérables existent dans les systèmes hybrides atomique et photonique, nous avons conçu un guide nanophotonique qui supporte un mode de Bloch lente guidée avec grande queue évanescente dans l'espace libre pour les atomes froids de piégeage. Pour adapter précisément la région de fréquence de la lumière lente du mode guidé à la ligne de transition atomique, nous avons conçu la bande photonique et de la courbe de dispersion du mode guidé afin que la force de l'interaction est robuste contre imprévisible fabrication imperfection. / In this thesis, we firstly investigated the striking influence of random disorder on light transport near band edges in one dimensional photonic crystal wave guides, i.e. light localization. Near-field measurements, statistical simulations and theoretical model revealed the existence of a lower bound for the spatial extent of localized modes. We also showed that the disorder level and the spatial extent of individual localized mode is linked by the photon effective mass rather than the generally considered group velocity. Secondly, hybrid cold atoms and photonic crystal wave guides system have been recognized as a promising paradigm for engineering large light-matter interaction at single atoms and photons level. In this thesis, we studied the basic physics, i.e. light transport in periodic nanophotonic wave guides coupled to two-level atoms. Our developed general semi-analytical expression can quickly characterize the coupling between cold atoms and guided photons. Aim to overcome the significant technical challenges existed for developing hybrid atom-photonic systems, we designed a nanophotonic waveguide, which supports a slow guided Bloch mode with large evanescent tail in free space for cold atoms trapping (release the limitation imposed by Casmir Polder force and technical challenge of nanoscale manipulation of cold atoms). To match precisely the slow light region of the guided mode to the atomic transition line, we carefully engineered the photonic band and the dispersion curve (i.e.flatness) of the guided mode so that the interaction strength is robust against unpredictable fabrication imperfection.

Photonic crystals (PhCs) are periodic dielectric structures that exhibit a photonic bandgap, i.e., a range of wavelength for which light propagation is forbidden. The special band structure related dispersion properties offer a realm of novel functionalities and interesting physical phenomena. PhCs have been manufactured using semiconductors and other material technologies. However, InP-based materials are the main choice for active devices at optical communication wavelengths. This thesis focuses on two-dimensional PhCs in the InP/GaInAsP/InP material system and addresses their fabrication technology and their physical properties covering both material issues and light propagation aspects. Ar/Cl2 chemically assisted ion beam etching was used to etch the photonic crystals. The etching characteristics including feature size dependent etching phenomena were experimentally determined and the underlying etching mechanisms are explained. For the etched PhC holes, aspect ratios around 20 were achieved, with a maximum etch depth of 5 microns for a hole diameter of 300 nm. Optical losses in photonic crystal devices were addressed both in terms of vertical confinement and hole shape and depth. The work also demonstrated that dry etching has a major impact on the properties of the photonic crystal material. The surface Fermi level at the etched hole sidewalls was found to be pinned at 0.12 eV below the conduction band minimum. This is shown to have important consequences on carrier transport. It is also found that, for an InGaAsP quantum well, the surface recombination velocity increases (non-linearly) by more than one order of magnitude as the etch duration is increased, providing evidence for accumulation of sidewall damage. A model based on sputtering theory is developed to qualitatively explain the development of damage. The physics of dispersive phenomena in PhC structures is investigated experimentally and theoretically. Negative refraction was experimentally demonstrated at optical wavelengths, and applied for light focusing. Fourier optics was used to experimentally explore the issue of coupling to Bloch modes inside the PhC slab and to experimentally determine the curvature of the band structure. Finally, dispersive phenomena were used in coupled-cavity waveguides to achieve a slow light regime with a group index of more than 180 and a group velocity dispersion up to 10^7 times that of a conventional fiber. / QC 20100712

The widespread adoption of photonic circuits requires the economics of volume manufacturing offered by integration technology. A Complementary Metal-Oxide Semiconductor compatible silicon material platform is particularly attractive because it leverages the huge investment that has been made in silicon electronics and its high index contrast enables tight confinement of light which decreases component footprint and energy consumption. Nevertheless, there remain challenges to the development of photonic integrated circuits. Although the density of integration is advancing steady and the integration of the principal components – waveguides, optical sources and amplifiers, modulators, and photodetectors – have all been demonstrated, the integration density is low and the device library far from complete. The integration density is low primarily because of the difficulty of confining light in structures small compared to the wavelength which measured in micrometers. The device library is incomplete because of the immaturity of hybridisation on silicon of other materials required by active devices such as III-V semiconductor alloys and ferroelectric oxides and the difficulty of controlling the coupling of light between disparate material platforms. Metamaterials are nanocomposite materials which have optical properties not readily found in Nature that are defined as much by their geometry as their constituent materials. This offers the prospect of the engineering of materials to achieve integrated components with enhanced functionality. Metamaterials are a class of photonic crystals includes subwavelength grating waveguides, which have already provided breakthroughs in component performance yet require a simpler fabrication process compatible with current minimum feature size limitations. The research reported in this PhD thesis advances our understanding of the structure-property relations of key planar light circuit components and the metamaterial engineering of these properties. The analysis and simulation of components featuring structures that are only just subwavelength is complicated and consumes large computer resources especially when a three dimensional analysis of components structured over a scale larger than the wavelength is desired. This obstructs the iterative design-simulate cycle. An abstraction is required that summarises the properties of the metamaterial pertinent to the larger scale while neglecting the microscopic detail. That abstraction is known as homogenisation. It is possible to extend homogenisation from the long-wavelength limit up to the Bragg resonance (band edge). It is found that a metamaterial waveguide is accurately modeled as a continuous medium waveguide provided proper account is taken of the emergent properties of the homogenised metamaterial. A homogenised subwavelength grating waveguide structure behaves as a strongly anisotropic and spatially dispersive material with a c-axis normal to the layers of a one dimensional multi-layer structure (Kronig-Penney) or along the axis of uniformity for a two dimensional photonic crystal in three dimensional structure. Issues with boundary effects in the near Bragg resonance subwavelength are avoided either by ensuring the averaging is over an extensive path parallel to boundary or the sharp boundary is removed by graded structures. A procedure is described that enables the local homogenised index of a graded structure to be determined. These finding are confirmed by simulations and experiments on test circuits composed of Mach-Zehnder interferometers and individual components composed of regular nanostructured waveguide segments with different lengths and widths; and graded adiabatic waveguide tapers. The test chip included Lüneburg micro-lenses, which have application to Fourier optics on a chip. The measured loss of each lens is 0.72 dB. Photonic integrated circuits featuring a network of waveguides, modulators and couplers are important to applications in RF photonics, optical communications and quantum optics. Modal phase error is one of the significant limitations to the scaling of multimode interference coupler port dimension. Multimode interference couplers rely on the Talbot effect and offer the best in-class performance. Anisotropy helps reduce the Talbot length but temporal and spatial dispersion is necessary to control the modal phase error and wavelength dependence of the Talbot length. The Talbot effect in a Kronig-Penny metamaterial is analysed. It is shown that the metamaterial may be engineered to provide a close approximation to the parabolic dispersion relation required by the Talbot effect for perfect imaging. These findings are then applied to the multimode region and access waveguide tapers of a multi-slotted waveguide multimode interference coupler with slots either in the transverse direction or longitudinal direction. A novel polarisation beam splitter exploiting the anisotropy provided by a longitudinally slotted structure is demonstrated by simulation. The thesis describes the design, verification by simulation and layout of a photonic integrated circuit containing metamaterial waveguide test structures. The test and measurement of the fabricated chip and the analysis of the data is described in detail. The experimental results show good agreement with the theory, with the expected errors due to fabrication process limitations. From the Scanning Electron Microscope images and the measurements, it is clear that at the boundary of the minimum feature size limit, the error increases but still the devices can function.

Le transport des ondes joue un rôle majeur dans les systèmes de communication comme le Wifi ou les fibres optiques. Les principaux problèmes rencontrés dans ces systèmes concernent la protection contre les intrusions, la consommation d’énergie et le filtrage modal. Nous proposons différentes expériences micro-ondes mettant toutes en œuvre une mise en forme des ondes, pour traiter ces problèmes. Dans une cavité micro-ondes, des états de diffusion particuliers sont générés en s’appuyant uniquement sur des mesures de transmission et sur le formalisme du temps de retard de Wigner-Smith. Ces états sont capables d’éviter une région déterminée de la cavité, de se concentrer sur un point particulier, ou de suivre une trajectoire d’une particule classique. Le filtrage de mode est mis en œuvre dans un guide d’ondes aux frontières ondulées et en présence de pertes dépendant de la position. Le profil du guide est choisi de façon à ce que les deux modes de Bloch qui se propagent encerclent un point exceptionnel. Cette trajectoire s’accompagne d’une transition non-adiabatique entre les deux modes et d'un filtrage asymétrique de ces modes. La thèse présente également des travaux liés à la problématique des algorithmes de « recherche quantique », notamment l’algorithme de Grover. Cette recherche est mise en œuvre dans un réseau en nid d’abeilles de résonateurs micro-ondes couplés, bien décrits par un modèle de liaisons fortes (le système constitue un analogue micro-ondes du graphène). Une expérience de preuve de principe propose la recherche de deux résonateurs distincts reliés au réseau. La loi d’échelle attendue pour cet algorithme est expérimentalement obtenue dans une chaîne linéaire / Transport of waves plays an important role in modern communication systems like Wi-Fi or optical fibres. Typical problems in such systems concern security against possible intruders, energy consumption, time efficiency and the possibility of mode filtering. Microwave experiments are suited to study this kind of problems, because they offer a good control of the experimental parameters. Thus we can implement the method of wave shaping to investigate atypical transport phenomena, which address the mentioned problems. Wave front shaping solely based on the transmission together with the Wigner-Smith time delay formalism allows me to establish special scattering states in situ. These scattering states avoid a pre-selected region, focus on a specific spot or follow trajectories of classical particles, so called particle-like scattering states. Mode filtering is induced inside a waveguide with wavy boundaries and position dependent loss. The boundary profiles are chosen in such a way that the two propagating modes describe an encircling of an exceptional point in the Bloch picture. The asymmetric mode filtering is found due to the appearing non-adiabatic transitions. Another part of my work deals with Grover’s quantum search. I put such a search into practice in a two-dimensional graphene-lattice using coupled resonators, which form a tight-binding analogue. In this proof of principle experiment we search for different resonators attached to the graphene-lattice. Furthermore, the scaling behaviour of the quantum search is quantified for a linear chain of resonators