Furthering our understanding of the physics of flapping flight has the potential to benefit the field of micro air vehicles. Advancements in micro air vehicles can benefit applications such as surveillance, reconnaissance, and search and rescue. In this research, flapping kinematics of a ladybug was explored using a direct linear transformation. A flapping mechanism design is presented that was capable of executing ladybug or other species-specific kinematics. The mechanism was based on a differential gear design, had two wings, and could flap in harsh environments. This mechanism served as a test bed for force analysis and optimization studies. The first study was based on a Box-Behnken screening design to explore wing kinematic parameter design space and manually search in the direction of flapping kinematics that optimized the objective of maximum combined lift and thrust. The second study used a Box-Behnken screening design to build a response surface. Using gradient-based techniques, this surface was optimized for maximum combined lift and thrust. Box-Behnken design coupled with response surface methodology was an efficient method for exploring the mechanism force response. Both methods for optimization were capable of successfully improving lift and thrust force outputs. The incorporation of the results of these studies will aid in the design of more efficient micro air vehicles and with the ultimate goal of leading to a better understanding of flapping wing aerodynamics and the development of aerodynamic models.

Flapping flight shows promise for micro air vehicle design because flapping wings provide superior aerodynamic performance than that of fixed wings and rotors at low Reynolds numbers. In these flight regimes, unsteady effects become increasingly important. This thesis explores some of the unsteady effects that provide additional lift to flapping wings through an experiment-based optimization of the kinematics of a flapping wing mechanism in a water tunnel. The mechanism wings and flow environment were scaled to simulate the flight of the hawkmoth (Manduca sexta) at hovering or near-hovering speeds. The optimization was repeated using rigid and flexible wings to evaluate the impact that wing flexibility has on aerodynamic performance of flapping wings. The trajectories that produced the highest lift were compared using particle image velocimetry to characterize the flow features produced during the periods of peak lift. A leading edge vortex was observed with all of the flapping trajectories and both wing types, the strength of which corresponded to the measured amount of lift of the wing. This research furthers our understanding of the lift-generating mechanisms used in nature and can be applied to improve the design of micro air vehicles.

Though still in relative infancy, the field of flapping flight has potential to have a far-reaching impact on human life. Nature presents a myriad of examples of successful uses of this locomotion. Human efforts in flapping flight have seen substantial improvement in recent times. Wing kinematics are a key aspect of this study. This study summarizes previous wing trajectory generators and presents a new trajectory generation method built upon previous methods. This includes a novel means of commanding unequal half-stroke durations subject to robotic trajectory continuity requirements. Additionally, previous optimization methods are improved upon. Experimental optimization is performed using the new trajectory generation method and a more traditional means. Methods for quantifying and compensating for sensor time-dependence are also discussed. Results show that the Polar Fourier Series trajectory generator advanced rapidly through the optimization process, especially during the initial phase of experimentation. The Modified Berman and Wang trajectory generator moved through the design space more slowly due to the increased number of kinematic parameters. When optimizing lift only, the trajectory generators produced similar results and kinematic forms. The findings suggest that the objective statement should be modified to reward efficiency while maintaining a certain amount of lift. It is expected that the difference between the capabilities of the two trajectory generators will become more apparent under such conditions.

Cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) are frequently prepared by sulfuric acid hydrolysis of a purified cellulose starting material. CNC yields, however, are generally low, often below 20%. This study employs response surface methodology to optimize the hydrolysis conditions for maximum CNC yield. Two experimental designs were tested and compared: the central composite design (CCD) and the Box–Behnken design (BBD). The three factors for the experimental design were acid concentration, hydrolysis temperature, and hydrolysis time. The responses quantified were CNC yield, sulfate group density, ζ-potential, z-average diameter, and Peak 1 value. The CCD proved suboptimal for this purpose because of the extreme reaction conditions at some of its corners, specifically (1,1,1) and (–1,–1, –1). Both models predicted maximum CNC yields in excess of 65% at similar sulfuric acid concentrations (~59 wt %) and hydrolysis temperatures (~65 °C). With the BBD, the hydrolysis temperature for maximum yield lay slightly outside the design space. All three factors were statistically significant for CNC yield with the CCD, whereas with the BBD, the hydrolysis time in the range 60–150 min was statistically insignificant. With both designs, the sulfate group density was a linear function of the acid concentration and hydrolysis temperature and maximal at the highest acid concentration and hydrolysis temperature of the design space. Both designs showed the hydrolysis time to be statistically insignificant for the ζ-potential of CNCs and yielded potentially data-overfitting regression models. With the BBD, the acid concentration significantly affected both the z-average diameter and Peak 1 value of CNCs. However, whereas the z-average diameter was more strongly affected by the hydrolysis temperature than the hydrolysis time, the Peak 1 value was more strongly affected by the hydrolysis time. The CCD did not yield a valid regression model for the Peak 1 data and a potentially data-overfitting model for the z-average diameter data. A future optimization study should use the BBD but slightly higher hydrolysis temperatures and shorter hydrolysis times than used with the BBD in this study (45–65 °C and 60–150 min, respectively). / Master of Science

The methodology of the design of experimnet has become an integral part of the optimisation of manufacturing processes in recent decades. Problems regarding designs of experiments are still up to date, especially because of a variety of approaches to collecting and evaluating data. Scientists in different research and development areas often do not take into account possible shortcommings or even essential assumptions of selected design and/or its evaluation methods. This disertation thesis summarizes theoretical bases of selected designs of experiments. Describes several applications of central composite design on responses regarding wire electrical discharge machining process. And compares different designs of experiment for response surfaces of five parameters with regards to algoritmic selection of statistically signifficant parameters.